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OUTLINE STUDIES 

IN THE 



SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



WITH AN INDEX TO THE CHARACTERS IN 
SHAKESPEARE'S PLAYS 



PREPARED FOR STUDENTS 
BY 

MARY E. FERRIS-GETTEMY, M. L. 

FORMER PRINCIPAL OF THE HIGH SCHOOL, 
GALESBURG, ILLINOIS 



CHICAGO 

A. FLANAGAN COMPANY 



USRARY of congress! 


Two Copies Received 
JAN 83 1907 


Cooyrlffht Entry 

CLASS c<_XXc.,No. 

COPY B. 



jhakesp^f^^^ 



COPTRIGHT 1904 

BY 

MARY E. FERRIS-GETTEM.T 

GALESBURG, ILLINOIS 



Copyright 1906 

BY 

A.FLANAGAN COMPANY 



TO MY PUPILS 

WHO WERE A NEVER-FAILING INSPIRATION 
TO THEIR TEACHER IN SHAKESPEARE, 
THESE STUDIES ARE AFFECTION- 
ATELY DEDICATED 



CONTENTS 



Page 

Preface to Second Edition ii 

How TO Use the Book in Classes 13 

I 

INTRODUCTORY STUDY 

The Drama 

Definition — Origin — Ethics of the Drama — Ethical conflict — 
Ethical World — Nemesis 21 

The English Drama 
Mystery Plays — Morality Plays — The Interlude — Early com- 
edy — Early tragedy — Crudity of the early drama 24 

The Theater in Shakespeare's Time 
Effect of the Reformation — Theaters built — Two classes — 
Performance of a play — The jig — Lack of scenery — 
Shakespeare's senior contemporaries 39 

Shakespeare and His Dramas 
Scarcity of records — Early biographers — Biographers of our 
time — Facts — Shakespeare's birthplace — Birth — The name 
— His family — Boyhood and education — Dramatic at- 
mosphere of Stratford — Influence of nature — In London 
— Greene's jealousy — Recasting plays — Play-writing — 
Return to Stratford — Will and death — Testimony of con- 
temporaries — Translation — Shakespeareana — Disorder of 

his writings 45 

5 



6 CONTENTS 

Page 

Shakespeare as a Dramatist 

His strength— Three distinguishing points— Three distinct 
purposes — Shakespeare universal — Characterization — 
Shakespeare's women — Characters and plot — Justice to 
characters— Dramatic purpose of characters— The super- 
natural—Humor—Sympathy with the fool 70 

Shakespeare's Prose 

Strength of prose — The prose drama Shakespeare's — Five 
styles of prose 82 

Shakespeare as a Teacher 

Morals — Treatment of immoral characters — Institutions of 
the Family and the State — Religion — The Bible 87 

Universal Knowledge 

Music — Law — Medical knowledge — Science — Nature — Animal 

life — Typography — Vocabulary 98 

II 
PRINCIPLES AND STRUCTURE OF THE SHAKE- 
SPEAREAN DRAMA 

Its Ethics 
Ethical principles — Solution — Nemesis — The principle of sac- 
rifice — Cordelia — Lear — Retribution — Shakespeare's Ethi- 
cal World 103 

Plan of Shakespeare's Ethical World 
Positive phase — Negative phase 107 

The Plot 
Incidents of plot and of story— Purpose of characters- 
Sources of plot 113 



CONTENTS T 

Page 
Dramatic Structure 

Threads — Movements 117 

Mechanical Structure 

Framework — Acts — Scenes 122 

Dramatic Classification 

Legendary — Historical — Tragedy and Comedy — Conflict 
double — Three phases of Comedy — Character and situ- 
ation — Comic action or structure — Real and Ideal — Pure 
and Tragi-comedy — Order of Historical plays — Snider's 
classification — Summary 124 

HI 

THE STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE 

Suggestions 

Shakespeare's versatility — The study of an individual play.. 137 

The Merchant of Venice 

sidelights 

Date of Play and Source of Plot 143 

Theme : Shylock's wealth — Antonio's wealth — Portia's 

wealth — Religious conflict — Love theme — Theme traced. 144 
.Structure: Threads — Movements — Comedy and Nemesis... 149 
Analysis of Structure : Antonio's thread — Shylock's thread — 

Religious conflict — Love thread — Property thread 152 

Some Legal Aspects 155 

The Bible in The Merchant of Venice 157 

development of the play 

Questions for Daily Lessons 161 

General Questions 173 

Scheme for Outline Book 17^ 

Suggestive Topics for Essays and Discussion 180 



8 CONTENTS 

Page 

Julius C^sar 

sidelights 

Plot and Characters : Date of play — Source of plot — Shake- 
speare's Csesar — Caesar and Brutus — Institutional persons 
— Tragedy and Comedy i88 

Ethical Standpoint of the Play: World spirit — ^The People 

in Julius CcBsar 192 

The Csesar of History : In war— Works of peace — Personal 

characteristics 194 

Structure : Threads — Movements 196 

Time Analysis 197 

CLASS STUDY 

Questions 199 

Scheme for Outline Book 204 

Suggestive Topics for Essays and Discussion 206 

Macbeth 

sidelights 

Some Features of the Play: Dramatic action— Classification 

— Source of plot 210 

The Subjective and the Objective 211 

The Supernatural Element: Superstitions of the times- 
Weird Sisters — Hecate 212 

The Porter 218 

Theme 218 

Basis of the Drama: Basis of action— Ethical standpoint- 
Nemesis 220 

Structure : Second thread— Two strands 221 

class STUDY 

Review 223 

The Play 223 

Supernatural Elements 224 

Characterization 227 



CONTENTS i^ 

Page 

Scheme for Outline Book 238 

Suggestive Topics for Essays and Discussion 240 

Hamlet 
sidelights 

The Fame of Hamlet: Its evohition — Shakespeare in the 

play — The Sphinx — Our interest in the play 249 

Points of Interest : Length — Source of plot — Ghost — Na- 
tional characteristics — Play-acting — Phases of the drama 
— Insanity — Ethical principles 251 

The Foreign Element : Fortinbras's rebellion — Fortinbras 
mediated — Fortinbras and the State — Fortinbras and the 
King — Fortinbras and Hamlet 254 

The Family Institution: The royal family — The Polonius 

family 259 

The Contradictory Hamlet: Outward Hamlet — Inner Ham- 
let — Effect of action 261 

The Play: Basis — Hamlet's basis of action — Necessity of 
the Ghost — The King's basis of action — The crime — The 
revenge — Claim to the crown — Hamlet's position — Jus- 
tice of the demand — Obstacles to be overcome 264 

The Conflict : Hamlet— The King 267 

Nemesis : Polonius — Ophelia — The Queen — The King — 
Laertes — Hamlet — Rosencrantz and Guilderstern — Har- 
mony restored — Office of Horatio 269 

Three Questions : Hamlet's insanity — The great question — 

The real tragedy 273 

Structure : Threads — Subjective conflicts 276 

CLASS STUDY 

Review • 277 

The Play 277 

Characterization 278 

General Questions 298 



10 CONTENTS 

Page 

Scheme for Outline Book 30i 

Suggestive Topics for Essays and Discussion 302 

Comparative Study • 304 

INDEX TO CHARACTERS 

Authority for Pronunciation 321 

Diacritical Marks 321 

A SMALL SHAKESPEAREAN LIBRARY 

Complete Works S'^S 

Life of Shakespeare '313 

Dramatic Structure and Interpretative Criticism 314 

For Reference Only 316 

Development of the English Drama 316 



GENERAL INDEX 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 



As THE title of this volume indicates, the studies it 
contains are worked out from the dramatic standpoint. 
The book is designed to help both teachers and pupils 
in a systematic study of Shakespeare. It is to be used 
in connection with any edition of plays, and therefore 
no attempt is made to duplicate in it the valuable matter 
usually found in single-play school editions. 

The object of the Introductory Study is to bring 
together in compact form information which all students 
should have, and which ordinarily must be gleaned from 
reference books that are not always at hand. 

In Part II the effort is to present the.principles and 
structure of the Shakespearean drama in so definite a 
form that they may be readily grasped and applied to 
the study of any play. 

Part III contains an application of these principles 
to the study of The Merchant of Venice, Julius Ccesar, 
Macbeth and Hamlet. 

We believe our selection of dramas a good one for 
study in secondary schools, and feel that the order in 
which we consider the plays has its advantages. The 
plan of spreading the study over three years is very 
desirable : first-year pupils can be interested in The 
Merchant of Venice; Julitis Ccesar is much more likely 
to be appreciated after the study of Roman Histor} than 
before ; while by the third year the pupil is able to bring 

11 



12 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 

greater maturity of mind to bear upon the more subtle 
questions to be discussed in Macbeth and Hamlet. 

Character study is presented by means of questions 
rather than by written sketches, in order to stimulate the 
pupil to think for himself. 

An index to the characters in Shakespeare's plays 
has been compiled as a matter of convenience. 

The sidelights to the studies of the individual dramas 
are designed merely to awaken interest, to call attention 
to and throw light upon some special features of each 
play, and to suggest lines of study that may be applied 
to other plays. 

The work here presented has been tried with pupils 
in the classroom, and has been thoroughly enjoyed and 
appreciated by them. 

The master critics Gervinus, Ulrici, Coleridge, 
Dowden, Brandes, Hudson and others have so illumined 
the pages of Shakespeare that he who reads must see, 
and the rich treasures which they reveal are now con- 
sidered common property. It has been the aim through- 
out this volume to give credit for helpful suggestions 
received from these scholars. 

Especial thanks are due to Dr. Denton J. Snider, 
who granted me carte blanche in the use of his com- 
mentaries ; it is but just to him to say that without the 
inspiration received from his interpretation of the master 
mind, this little venture would never have been launched. 
If the book proves helpful to any in the study of the 
great searcher of the hearts and intents of men, its 
mission is accomplished. 

M. E. F.-G. 
Galesburg, Illinois, October, 1906. 



HOW TO USE THE BOOK IN CLASSES 



As STATED in the Preface, this book is intended as a 
basis of study to accompany any edition of Shakespeare's 
plays. Since it is to serve as a handbook for the teacher 
as well as for the pupil, the discussion of certain topics 
may be found rather beyond some pupils ; but a little 
help from the teacher will soon enable the pupil to 
develop the thought, and thereby gain mental grasp for 
himself. 

At the beginning of Part HI will be found some 
general suggestions for the study of any play, also for 
the especial plays which follow ; these suggestions, 
together with the questions on the text and on the plays, 
and the schemes for outline books, indicate to some 
extent how the book may be used, but it has been 
suggested that more specific hints may be needed by 
those who have had but little experience in teaching this 
subject. 

The studies of the four plays given are somewhat 
progressive, and should be pursued in the order here 
presented. 

FIRST YEAR 

Before reading the first play, it might be well to 
devote a few recitations to the first twenty-four pages 
of Part I, so that the pupils may gain an idea of the 

13 



14 HOW TO USE BOOK IN CLASSES 

growth of the English drama up to the time of Shake- 
speare, and become interested in the subject before 
beginning the study of the play. When the play is taken 
up, call attention to its mechanism; then refer to the 
topic "Mechanical Structure" (page 122). The pupils 
should learn this at once and carry it with them through 
the play ; they will then have no trouble in the future in 
tracing the development of any play. 

Portions of "Shakespeare and His Dramas" may be 
assigned daily in connection with the study of the play, 
a few minutes at the beginning of the recitation being 
spent in discussion of them. The topics in the remainder 
of the chapter may profitably be taken up as suggested 
by the text of the play. .The Merchant of Venice is 
especially suggestive on the topics of Religion and 
Music. 

What to do with "Ethical Principles" (Part II) with 
first-year pupils must depend somewhat upon the class ; 
if the teacher finds the subject too difficult for her pupils 
she should touch it lightly, first bringing out the thought 
in the study of the play, and gradually developing the 
principles. 

"The Dramatic Structure" is of great importance in 
getting a grasp of the play. The pupil should first read 
the play through by himself"^ : then, at the beginning of 
the class study, the topic "Structure" (Part II) should 
be taken up and applied to the play. (See suggestions 
on The Merchant of Venice, Part III.) If the threads 
and movements of the dramatic structure are constantly 

•If the pupils are beginners, who have never read a play of 
Shakespeare, it may be wise to read the first play with them. 



HOW TO USE BOOK IN CLASSES 15 

referred to in the course of the study, they will soon 
give no more trouble than the mechanical structure of 
acts and scenes ; it will not be long before the pupil can 
give the office of any character in the play. 

By the assigning of one or two topics daily upon the 
"Classification of the Drama," this will soon be mas- 
tered. Always illustrate by the play in hand — First, 
Legendary and Historical ; which is The Merchant of 
J^cnicc? Second, Tragedy and Comedy; which is The 
Merchant of J^enicef Third, Real and Ideal; which is 
The MercJiaiit of ]\viice? Fourth, Pure or Tragi- 
comedy ; which is The Merchant of Venice? The pupil 
can now classify the drama thus : The Mercliant of 
Venice — Legendary ; Comedy ; Real ; Tragi-Comedy — 
and give reasons for the classification. 

While making a study of a Real Tragi-Comedy, it is 
well to assign for home reading a play of another class, 
to show the contrast ; a general favorite is the Ideal 
Pure Comedy As You Like It. Should there be time for 
more than one play, the Real Pure Comedy Twelfth 
Night, or the Ideal Tragi-Comedy Winter s Tale may 
be read. 

In the first year the historical division of the drama 
need not be dwelt upon to any extent. 



SECOND YEAR 

In connection with the Roman historical play Julius 
Ccesar, thoroughly review Parts I and II until mastered, 
emphasizing the features of the Historical Drama, and 



16 HOW TO USE BOOK IN CLASSES 

bringing out the points of difference between it and the 
Legendary Drama. Call particular attention to the use 
of the supernatural element in the form of superstitious 
beliefs, omens, classical allusions, and so on. Notice 
that while threads and movements are readily traced, 
the dramatic structure is looser, while the mechanical 
structure shows the fidelity of the Legendary Drama. 

As suggested on page 13, by a little study on the part 
of the teacher the questions on the plays may be, easily 
traced by acts and scenes, and selections made to assign 
in advance, for each day's lesson. 

THIRD YEAR 

In connection with the Ideal Tragedies Macbeth and 
Hamlet, again thoroughly review Parts I and II, empha- 
sizing the ethical element of the authors works ; in fact, 
these two plays should be studied throughout from an 
ethical standpoint. Apply the classification given on 
page 132 to the plays. Show how Nemesis follows the 
guilty doer of an evil deed, bringing him to his destruc- 
tion. Call attention to "The Supernatural," ''Morals," 
and ''Religion" (Part I). The form and use of the 
supernatural is brought out in the studies of these plays 
in Part III. 

Show how these two plays in a certain sense form a 
connecting link between the historical and the legendary 
dramas. 

For home reading the pupil is now prepared to take 
up the Ideal Tragi-Comedy The Tempest, or any of the 
strong Real Tragedies. 



HOW TO USE BOOK IN CLASSES 17 

Blank pages for notes have been inserted at the close 
of the study of each play. 

As in any other subject, so in the study of Shake- 
speare, nothing will awaken the interest and fire the 
enthusiasm of pupils like fresh coals from the altar of an 
enthusiastic teacher. 



I 

INTRODUCTORY STUDY 



INTRODUCTORY STUDY 
The Drama 

The Drama is that form of literature which repre- 
sents man in, action ; the characters manifest themselves 
through their own words and deeds ; we see them in the 
process of development. We see the motives prompting 
each act; we see man receiving the reward or the 
penalty of his own act as a natural consequence of the 
act itself. If the deed is evil, we see it working out its 
own destruction, and while we may feel sympathy for 
the individual, we rejoice in the ultimate destruction of 
the evil. 

The Drama shows man his own deed and its conse- 
quences in the form of the deed itself and its results; 
hence the Drama has truly been called the highest form 
of art, since it represents man, not in the cold pulseless 
marble of sculpture, nor in the artificial coloring of the 
canvas, but in the flesh and blood of actual life. Here 
we see the subjective conflicts of the passions of man 
worked out in the objective and often bloody conflicts 
of real life. 

All art has religious thought for its basis, and the 
Drama is no exception to this general rule. The early 
dramatic poetry of the Hindoos and the Persians was 
of a religious nature, while the best of the ancient 

21 



22 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

dramas, the Greek, originated in religious festivals. 
The religious element is inherent in man. It was but 
natural that in the dim ages with this religious force 
struggling within him it should seek outward expression 
in the dramatic form. The Mass of the Roman Catholic 
Church is really only a drama portraying the fall and 
redemption of man. 

The history of fiction shows that instinctively man 
desires a grasp upon the whole of life at once ; time is 
too slow for him : the history of the Drama shows that 
he likes to see the life-problem worked out before his 
very eyes from beginning to end ; of this he never tires. 

In this inborn tendency of man's religious nature to 
express itself, and his desire to see the life-problem 
worked out, we have the reason why the Drama came 
to be, and why it has maintained itself through honor 
and through dishonor, during all the centuries. It is a 
necessity of man's nature. 

Ethics of the Drama. "Ethics is the science of 
human duty, or the science of morals."* Many of the 
higher animals manifest a wonderful intelligence, but no 
indication of a moral or spiritual nature has ever been 
discovered in any branch of the brute creation; man 
alone is endowed with an ethical nature. Life is but 
an ethical drama in the largest sense. Hence the Drama, 
to be true to life, must be ethical; that is, it must be 
based upon ethical or moral principles, and be worked 
out according to ethical or moral laws. 

Ethical Conflict. In the drama of life we see the 



■Standard Dictionary. 



THE DRAMA 23 

ethical forces of good and evil, right and wrong, arrayed 
against one another in constant conflict. Objectivelyf 
we see this conflict going on all about us ; we see avarice 
taking advantage of the weak and grinding the poor. 
Subjectively we realize in our own inner conflict that 
there is a law in our members that when we would do 
good, evil is present with us ; inclination urges us on ; 
duty holds us back. Wrong says, "Do this." Right 
says, *'No." Launcelot Gobbo says, "The fiend is at 
mine elbow and tempts me, saying to me, *. . . good 
Launcelot Gobbo, use your legs, take the start, run 
away.' My conscience says, *No ; take heed, . . . 
honest Launcelot Gobbo ; do not run ; scorn running 
with thy heels.' . . . *Budge,' says the fiend. 
'Budge not,' says my conscience."''' And thus the 
conflict goes on. The result is with ourselves ; we must 
decide which shall triumph in the end, the fiend or 
conscience. The struggle is often fierce, and it is only 
by constantly overcoming that we at last gain that 
victory which brings peace in our own individual spir- 
itual realm. 

Ethical World. For convenience, this moral and 
spiritual realm or world in which these ethical forces 
are in conflict may be called the Ethical World. 

As we witness these forces at war, we intuitively 
feel that though the end may be long delayed, right and 
justice will surely triumph at last. Society demands 
this. If a man takes the life of his fellow man, society 



tObjectively objective : that which appeals to the mind from 
without. Subjective : that which originates and exists In the mind. 
See p. 211. 

* Merchant of Venice, ii, 2. 



24 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

demands that he shall suffer the penalty of his deed in 
order that it (society) can feel safe. His deed contains 
within it the elements of death which come back upon 
his own head and bring his destruction. When he has 
satisfied the law, harmony is restored, and society is at 
peace. 

Nemesis. Anciently, Nemesis was the goddess who 
kept things proportioned. If a man acquired an excess 
of property it was the business of Nemesis to see that he 
suffered loss. Later she became the goddess of retribu- 
tion. She crept into the art world and has become a 
favorite there. Moulton says that "in ancient thought 
Nemesis was an artistic bond between sin and retribu- 
tion." That is, she represents the simple principle, 
"Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap" ; 
"He that soweth to his flesh shall of the flesh reap 
corruption." In other words, the fleshly deed contains 
within itself the elements of destruction, and the evil- 
doer suffers the penalty of his own deed. No more 
striking illustration of Nemesis can be given than the 
case of Shylock; hedged in at every turn by his own 
thought and word he is, Haman-like, hanged on his own 
gallows ; he becomes the avenger of his own evil thought. 

The English Drama 

Hudson says that the English Drama is not clearly 
traceable to any foreign source; that it was an original 
and independent growth.* Still, it also was of ecclesi- 
astical origin, having its rise in the Mass of the Church 

•Shakespeare : His Life, Art, and Character, vol. i, p. 53. 



THE DRAMA 23 

of the early centuries. Its original object was religious 
instruction. In its early days there were almost no 
books ; the common people could not read : the play was 
a device of the clergy for instructing them in Bible 
truths and stories. As the new birth of religious thought 
and emotion in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries gave 
rise to new forms and subjects in art as expressed in 
painting and music, so the same thought became the 
mainspring of the Drama. 

The development of the modern English Drama may 
be traced through three quite distinct stages, although 
they naturally blend more or less one into another: the 
Miracle or Mystery Play, the Morality Play, and the 
Interlude. Originally, a distinction was made between 
Mystery Plays and Miracle Plays. The Mystery Play 
portra d Bible stories of the creation and fall of man, 
and his redemption, while the Miracle Plays, probably 
of later date, were based upon the legends of saints and 
martyrs. In England, however, one term usually suf- 
ficed for both. 

Mystery Plays. The Mystery Plays were based upon 
the idea of supernatural power. In the Introduction to 
his 'Tragedies," Dr. Denton J. Snider thus summarizes 
their general characteristics and plan: 

The Mystery Play seeks to give, in a religious frame-work, 
the entire history of man from the Creation till the Judgment 
Day, as it is presented in historic continuity by the Old and New 
Testaments. The Lord and the Devil are the two chief char- 
acters, who appear in person on the stage, and carry on their 
conflict. The Devil is comic in these old plays, so are all of his 
demons, cohorts, earthly representatives, such as Herod. To the 



26 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

simple minds of the people, the bad, in attempting to overthrow 
the good, is foolish, ludicrous, comic. Evil, in its complete circle, 
is self-destructive; so our ancestors laughed at the devil, on the 
stage at least. It often required several days to give an entire 
Mystery, which is not so much one play, as a series of plays; 
the Coventry Mystery, for example, ia composed of forty-two 
plays or, more properly, long dialogues. The dealings of Provi- 
dence with his children are the great fact which is emphasized; 
the side of divine order is presented overwhelmingly ; in it man 
is passive, or at best a child ; and future bliss is made the motive 
of this world's deed. 

In the Mystery Plays no attempt was made to portray 
humanity — only the spiritual conflict through which man 
passes to final redemption. These plays were at first 
written by the clergy and performed in abbeys or 
cathedrals; soon they were taken up by companies and 
performed in the open air on staging, then on platforms 
on wheels, moving from street to street and from town 
to town. For the performance of some Mysteries the 
carts had a series of three platforms, one above the 
other : the upper one represented Heaven, the middle one 
Earth, and the lower one Hell. Of course God and his 
angels occupied Heaven; the Devil and his demons 
occupied Hell, while poor humanity worked out its prob- 
lems between the two, often in danger of being dragged 
into the bottomless pit through the yawning dragon's 
mouth which formed the entrance, and which emitted 
smoke and flame whenever occasion required. A gor- 
geous Heaven was the pride of the company ; a company 
that could afford silk hangings and fruit-bearing trees 
was considered truly fortunate. 

As we can readily imagine, when these plays got out 



THE DRAMA 27 

of the hands of the clergy and were performed on the 
street as moving pageants, passing from square to square, 
their sacred character was in danger. Still, however, 
the conditions of the times and the darkness from which 
the minds of the people had scarcely emerged, dulled 
even sensitive natures to what to us would be nothing 
more or less than absolute blasphemy. No one was in 
the least shocked by such items in the accounts of the 
companies as the following: 

Paid for a pair of gloves for God, 

Paid for gilding God's coat. 

Paid for keeping fyer at Hell's mouth iild. 

Soon, in order to enliven the play, coarse jesting 
scenes were introduced. In The Deluge Mrs. Noah is 
represented as a vixen who refuses to obey her husband, 
scolds him and has to be flogged ; refusing to leave her 
gossiping friends to go into the ark, she is at last 
dragged through water up to her neck by her husband 
and sons and forced to enter. 

The Play of the Blessed Sacrament 

These Mystery Plays were acted regularly at Christ- 
mas, Easter, and at the Corpus Christi festivals. \ 
curious specimen of the Corpus Christi play was dis- 
covered not long since in the library of Trinity College 
in Dublin ; it is supposed to date back to the reign of 
Edward IV, which closed in 1483. Hudson gives the 
following description of it: 

It is called The Play of the Blessed Sacrament, and is founded 
on a miracle alleged to have been wrought in the forest of 



28 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Arragon, in 1461. In form it closely resembles the Miracle- 
Plays founded on Scripture, the Saviour being one of the char- 
acters, the others being five Jews, a bishop, a priest, a merchant, 
and a physician and his servant. The merchant, having the key 
of the church, steals the Host, and sells it to the Jews, who 
promise to turn Christians in case they find its miraculous power 
verified. They put the Host to various tests. Being stabbed 
with their daggers, it bleeds, and one of the Jews goes mad at 
the sight. They -next attempt nailing it to a post, when one of 
them has his hand torn off; whereupon the physician and his 
man come in to dress the wound, but after a long comic scene 
are driven out as quacks. The Jews then proceed to boil the 
Host, but the water forthwith turns blood-red. Finally, they 
cast it into a heated oven, which presently bursts asunder, and 
an image of the Saviour rises and addresses the Jews, who 
make good their promise upon the spot. The merchant confesses 
his theft, declares his penitence, and is forgiven.* 

The object of this play was to strengthen the people 
in the doctrine of the Church that the elements of the 
sacrament are converted into the actual body and blood 
of the Saviour — transubstantiation. 

Morality Plays. Naturally humanity must in time 
assert itself, and by degrees allegorical personages came 
to be mixed up with scriptural characters, enforcing 
moral lessons, until finally the whole play consisted of 
the virtues and vices as abstract principles arrayed 
against one another. In the conflict the virtues 
triumphed over the vices in the end ; the Drama now 
became ethical. 

The Devil was a favorite character in the Mysteries 
and was retained in the Moralities, while to strengthen 
the humorous element a character called the Vice was 



•Shakespeare : His Life, Art, and Cliaracters, vol. 1, p. 57. 



THE DRAMA 29 

introduced. The Vice always accompanied the Devil; 
the two bore a leading part in the play. The Devil was 
usually made as evil-looking as possible, with a hideous 
face, horns, hoofs and a tail. The Mce followed him 
about the stage, tormenting him in every possible way, 
riding upon his back, beating him until he roared (and 
the louder he roared the better pleased was the audi- 
ence), until finally the Vice was carried ofi to Hell on 
the Devil's back. 

Ben Jonson, in his Staple of News, gives an imagi- 
nary conversation between acts, in which he amusingly 
illustrates the interest centered in these characters. 
Fearing there may be no Vice in the play, at the end of 
the first act Gossip Tattle thus relieves her mind : ''My 
husband, Timothy Tattle, God rest his poor soul, was 
wont to say there was no play without a Fool and a 
Devil in it ; he was for the Devil still, God bless him. 
The Devil for his money, he would say ; I would fain see 
the Devil." "But was the Devil a proper man?" was 
asked. Whereupon Gossip Mirth replies: "As fine a 
gentleman of his inches as ever I saw trusted to the 
stage or anywhere else ; and loved the commonwealth as 
well as ever a patriot of them all. He would carry away 
the Vice upon his back quickly to Hell wherever he 
came, and reform abuses." At the end of the second 
act, when asked, "How like you the Vice in the play?" 
Gossip Tattle complains : "But there is never a fiend to 
carry him away. Besides, he has never a wooden dagger. 
I would not give a rush for a Vice that has not a wooden 
dagger, to snap at everybody he meets." Mirth replies: 
"That was the old way, Gossip, when Iniquity came in 



30 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

like Hokus-Pokus in a juggler's jerkin, with false skirts, 
like the Knave of Clubs." 

It will readily be seen that the moral play must 
introduce entirely new features in the writing of a play : 
the story and characters must now be conceived, the plot 
originated. After a time historical characters were sub- 
stituted for abstract virtues, as when Aristides took the 
place of Justice. Then when the Reformation became 
of all-absorbing interest, the play began to take sides 
politically : real characters were shown through various 
slight disguises, and instead of the old allegorical plays 
we see the beginning of a drama of power. Man is 
shown in his conflict with the World, the Flesh, and the 
Devil; he is shown to be a responsible being morally, 
and the individual is moved from within. The play deals 
with motives as well as with acts. The conflict por- 
trayed is a moral one in which Virtue always triumphs 
over Vice. But as Snider says, ''the moral play is a 
bloodless allegory, it takes the moral substance by itself 
without sensible form." 

Everyman 
The Morality Everyman, published in London about 
the year 1500, furnishes a fine illustration of this blood- 
less allegory. The Dramatis Personse is in itself very 
suggestive : 

Messenger Cousin Beauty 

God Goods Strength 

Death Good Deeds Discretion 

Everyman Knowledge Five Wits 

Fellowship Confession Angel 

Kindred Doctor 



THE DRAMA 31 

The play opens with a prologue by the Messenger in 
which he announces the theme : 

The summoning of Everyman called it is, 

For ye shall hear, how our Heaven King 
Calleth Everyman lo a 'general reckoning. 

Then God appears and charges all creatures with being 
drowned in sin — 

They be so encumbered with worldly riches, 
That 'needs on them I must do justice. 

He then commands Death to go to Everyman and show 
him the pilgrimage which he must take, 

Which he in no wise may escape. 

When Everyman receives the summons, he pleads 
unreadiness and begs for time, but Death is inexorable. 
Then Everyman begins to cast about for company to 
help him on his journey ; he calls in turn upon Fellow- 
ship and upon Kindred, who at first give a ready con- 
sent, but when they learn -that they are going upon a 
journey from which there is no returning, they forsake 
him. In his despair he recalls that 

All my life I have loved riches. 

lie now calls upon his Goods and Riches. Goods replies : 

I lie here in corners trussed and piled so high. 
And in chests T am locked so fast, 
Also sacked \n bags, thou niayest sec with thine eye 
I cannot stir. 



32 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Nevertheless Everyman tells him that he is sent for, 

To give a straight account general 
Before the Highest Jupiter of all, 

and he begs Goods to go with him, 

For, peradventure, thou mayest before God Almighty 
My reckoning help to clean and purify. 

Goods informs him that 

My condition is man's soul to kill, 
If I save one, a thousand do I spill, 

and that it is only to Everyman's damnation that he has 
so loved Riches instead of giving part to the poor ; with 
a derisive laugh he then leaves the poor man to wail, 

Oh, to whom shall I make my moan. 

For to go with me on that heavy journey? 

At last he recalls his Good Deeds — 

But, alas ! she is so weak. 

Good Deeds replies : 

Here I lie in the cold ground ; 
Thy sins have me so sore bound, 
That I cannot stir. 

Good Deeds calls her sister Knowledge to their 
assistance ; she leads Everyman "to Confession, that 
cleansing river." Confession gives him "a precious 
jewel called penance." Through confession and penance 
Everyman gains absolution, and feels that he is now 
ready to go on his journey. By the advice of Good 
Deeds and Knowledge, Strength, Beauty, Discretion and 



THE DRAMA 33 

Five Wits are now called in. Five Wits advises that 
the blessed sacrament be administered by the priest 
because 

No remedy find we under God. 
But only priesthood. 

Everyman then receives the sacrament and is in haste 
to go. Overcome with weakness he exclaims : 

Friends, let me not turn again to this land, 

Not for all the world's gold ; 

For into this cave must I creep, 

And turn to the earth, and there to sleep ; 

whereupon Discretion, Strength, Beauty and Five Wits 
desert him. Knowledge w^aits to see him depart. He 
now commends his soul to God and passes on, accom- 
panied by Good Deeds only. An Angel sings a song of 
welcome "into the heavenly sphere" ; the Doctor pro- 
nounces the epilogue in which he charges all to bear in 
mind ''that all at last do Everyman forsake, save his 
Good Deeds: [them he] there doth take."* 

The Interlude. Man naturally craves things tangible, 
and about the first of the sixteenth century the Drama 
began to take on a new form. This form had its origin 
in the natural desire for amusement. Short farces were 
introduced between the acts of the Miracle and ^lorality 
plays for the entertainment of the audience, and were 
also acted in the intervals of a banquet. This custom 
gave the term Interlude to these amusing pieces. John 



*TI)is old Morality has rPcoiUly been revivod, n'publislKMl. and 
again put upon the stago in Loudon. It has also received a hearty 
welcome in the United States, where it has been presented in the 
larger cities and in several of the universities. 



34 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Heywood, jester of Henry VIII, seems to be the first 
to develop this idea into a complete drama. His char- 
acters were no longer qualities of mind or morals, but 
were taken from real life ; they were given the names of 
men and women. But the \Tce, who seemed quite indis- 
pensable, was retained as a personage. 

The Four P's 

Perhaps his most famous production was The Four 
P's, designed to illustrate the wit and- manners of the 
times : a Palmer, a Pardoner, a Poticary and a Peddler 
have a discussion as to who can practice the greatest 
frauds upon the credulous or the ignorant, and finally 
lay a wager as to wdio can tell the greatest lie. The 
Palmer says he has never seen a v/oman out of temper ; 
of course he is pronounced the greatest liar of all. 

At this time the influence of the Reformation was 
beginning to be felt in England and reverence for the 
Roman Church was weakening, so we must not l^e sur- 
prised to hear the Pardoner say : 

I say yet again, my pardons are such, 

That if there were a thousand souls upon a heap, 

I would bring them all to heaven as good sheep. 

With small cost without any pain, 

These pardons bring them to heaven plain : 

Give me but a penny or two-pence, 

And as soon as the soul departeth hence, 

In half an hour, or three-quarters at most 

The soul is in heaven with the Holy Ghost. 

He displays many relics, calling attention to one in 
the following language : 



THE DRAMA 35 

Nay. sirs, here may ye see 

The great toe of the Trinity ; 

Who to this toe any money voweth ■ 

And once may roll it in his month. 

All his life after I nndertake 

He shall never he vexed with the toothache. 

To which the Poticary replies : 

I pray you turn that relic about ; 
Either the Trinity had the gout. 
Or else, because it is three toes in one, 
God made it as much as three toes alone. 

As may readily be seen, amusement is the sole object 
of the Interlude. The element of instruction, either 
spiritual or n^.oral, has dropped out; \Tce is enjoyed as 
much as \Trtue — nay, oftentimes more. When the play 
lias lost its ethical element, \vc must expect it to descend 
to a coarseness unendurable to the refined mind. 

SuiuiJiary 

For convenience, the chief points in these stages of 
the development of the English Drama may be briefly 
summarized as follows : 

The Mystery Play portrays the conflict between Good 
and Evil as abstract principles. The conflict is spiritual, 
(lood triumphs in the end. The object of the play is to 
instruct in Bible stories and the principles of religion, 
and to cultivate the spiritual nature in man. 

The Morality Play portrays the strife between the 
moral forces in man. Good triumphs over the Evil. 
Here, too, the primarA- object is to instruct, and to culti- 
vate the moral nature in man. 



36 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

The Interlude is decidedly human. It portrays the 
follies and passions of man in action ; the element of 
instruction drops" out. Amusement is the sole object ; it 
matters not whether Vice or A^irtue triumphs. 

The true Drama must reveal the divine order as 
shown in the Mystery Play, it must show the moral germ 
in the individual, as in the IMorality Play, it must show 
the purely human side of life, as in the Interlude. 

Ralph Roister Doister 

Early Comedy. It can readily be seen that from the 
Interlude to Comedy proper is but a step. In 1551 
appeared a genuine comedy in five acts, divided into 
scenes. The play was entitled Ralph Roister Doister, 
and was written by Nicholas Udall, an educated man, at 
one time headmaster of Westminster School. His name 
is distinguished in the literature of his time. The names 
of the characters in this play show traces of the 
Morality. 

The hero and heroine are Ralph and a widow, Dame 
Custance. Ralph's friend Matthew Merrygreek plays 
an important part. Minor characters are Trupenny, 
Madge Mumblecrust, Talkapace, Alyface, Good Luck, 
etc. Ralph is desperately in love with the widow and 
writes her letters, which she returns. Matthew Merry- 
greek, evidently the Vice of the play, full of fun and 
merry mischief, plays the go-between, and at last per- 
suades the widow to listen to a letter from her admirer. 
As written by Ralph, the letter reads : 



THE DRAMA 37 

Now by these presents I do you advertise 

That I am minded to marry you, in no wise 

For your goods and substance ; I could be content 

To take you as ye are ; if ye mind to be my wife, 

Ye shall be assured for the time of my life, 

I will keep ye right well : from good raiment and fare 

Ye shall not be kept ; but in sorrow and care 

Ye shall in no wise live ; at your own liberty, 

Do and say what ye lust ; ye shall never please me 

But when ye are merry ; I will be all sad 

When ye are sorry ; I will be very glad 

When ye seek your heart's ease ; I will be unkind 

At no time ; in me shall ye much gentleness find. 

The merry and fiui-loving Matthew sees in the 
writing a temptation which he is unahle to withstand, 
and this is what the fascinating widow listens to : 

Now by these presents I do you advertise 

That I am minded to marry you in no wise. 

For your goods and substance I could be content 

To take ye as you are. If ye mind to be my wife, 

Ye shall be assured, for the time of my life 

I will keep ye right well from good raiment and fare ; 

Ye shall not be kept but in sorrow and care. 

Ye shall in no wise live at your own liberty ; 

Do and say what ye lust, ye shall never please me ; 

But when ye are merry. I will be all sad ; 

When ye are sorry, I will be very glad ; 

When ye seek your heart's ease I will be unkind : 

At no time in me shall ye much gentleness find. 

It is needless to say that Ralph does not win the 
widow. She marries another suitor, Good Luck. The 
merit of this comedy marks the progress in the develop- 
ment of the Drama. 



38 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Gorboduc 

Early Tragedy. Tragedy soon follows, in the play 
Gorboduc or Fcrrex and Porrcx, which was played 
before Queen Elizabeth in 1562. Gorboduc, King of 
Great Britain in 500 B.C., divides his kingdom between 
his two sons, Ferrex and Porrex. K quarrel ensues; 
Porrex kills Ferrex ; the mother avenges the murder by 
killing Porrex in his sleep ; war follows ; the country is 
wasted and the kingdom left without a head. The play 
was written at least in part by Thomas Sackville, about 
1562. As a work of dramatic art, it is less faithful to 
real life than Udall's comedy, but still we see that the 
Drama is working up to its modern form. 

Crudity of the Early Drama. It, however, lacked the 
unity and artistic finish wdiich were left for Shakespeare's 
keen dramatic perception to bring forth. Sir Philip Sid- 
ney, who died in 1586, says in his Defense of Poetry: 

Our Tragedies and Comedies are not without cause cried out 
against, observing rules neither of honest civility nor skillful 
poetry. You shall have Asia of the one side and Afric of the 
other, and so many under-kingdoms that the player when he 
comes in must ever begin with telling where he is, or else the 
tale will not be conceived. Now you shall have three ladies walk 
to gather flowers, and then we must believe the stage to be a 
garden ; by and by we hear news of a shipwreck in the same 
place ; then we are to blame if we accept it not for a rock. Upon 
the back of that comes out a hideous monster with fire and 
smoke, and then the miserable beholders are bound to take it 
for a cave; while in the meantime two armies fly in, represented 
with four swords and bucklers and then what hard heart yet 
will not receive it for a pitched field? Now of time they are 
much more liberal. But besides these gross absurdities, ali 



THE THEATER IN SHAKESPEARE'S TIME 39 

their plays be neither right tragedies nor right comedies, 
mingling kings and clowns not because the matter so carried it, 
but thrust in the clown by head and shoulders, to play a part in 
majestical matters with neither decency nor discretion. 

This statement not only shows the crude state of the 
Drama quite np to Shakespeare's time, but also gives 
some idea of the crudit}' of the stage itself — the lack of 
anything like scenery and of all the modern helps to the 
interpretation of a play. Sir Philip's keen perception of 
the faults of the Drama was almost prophetic of the 
wonderful order which was soon to be brought out of 
this chaos, but little he dreamed how soon! 

The Theater ix Shakespeare's Time 

The presentation of the Mystery and Morality plays 
inside and outside of chapels and cathedrals, and their 
street wanderings, have been spoken of. As the plavs 
for amusement became more popular, strolling bands of 
actors went about and played before courts or in the 
palaces of the nobility, especially during- the Lenten 
season when they were not allowed to play in the larger 
cities and towns. Choir boys and the young people of 
the guilds gave amateur performances in public halls, 
which, if WQ may believe Hamlet, caused some jealousy 
among- the professional actors. Finally nearly every 
court had its "blaster of Revels." 

Effect of the Reformation. As the Reformation 
began to take root in England, the Church began to look 
somewhat doubtfully upon dramatic performances, and 
finally Parliament forbade Miracle Plays lest something 



40 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

should be presented which would conflict with the doc- 
trines of the Church; Morality Plays, however, were 
permitted, and one can readily see that this tended to 
secularize the drama. With the change in religious 
thought, especially with the development of Puritanism, 
came a change in the attitude of the authorities toward 
amusements in general, and while Elizabeth in 1574 
granted a permit to ''Lord Leicester's Servants" to play 
anywhere for the amusement of herself or her lieges, 
they were not permitted to play without the Lord 
Mayor's especial permit for every individual perform- 
ance. We can see that under these increasing restric- 
tions playwrights and actors were almost driven to take 
some steps toward greater independence. 

Theaters Bnilf. The play must have a house of its 
own, and in 1576, according to Halliwell, London's first 
theater, called The Theatre, was built. The Curtain was 
built soon after, and others followed in rapid succession. 
To escape restrictions, they were all located without the 
city corporation, on the marshy ground on the south side 
of the Thames but easily accessible from the city itself. 
Blackfriars, where many of Shakespeare's plays were 
first presented, was built not earlier than 1596, while 
The Globe was built in 1599 from the material of The 
Theatre, which had to be torn down. This was known 
as Shakespeare's theater, since he was a large share 
owner, and had control of it; it was doubtless built for 
him, and we always think of it as his theatrical home. 

In the immediate vicinity of the theaters were located 
all sorts of questionable places of amusement and dis- 
reputable houses. Brandes tells us that ''close to the 



THE THEATER IN SHAKESPEARE'S TIME 41 

Globe Theatre lay the bear garden, the rank smell of 
which greeted the nostrils even before it came in sight. 
The famous bear, Sackerson, mentioned in the Merry 
Wives of Windsor, now and then broke his chain and 
put the female theater-goers shrieking with fright." 

Notwithstanding all of these disadvantages, the 
theater grew to be immensely popular and was patron- 
ized by all classes of people, from the nobility down to 
the ''groundlings," who paid a penny for standing room 
in the pit. Elizabeth, who was very fond of the play, did 
not go to the public theaters, but had her own court 
entertainments in the palace. During Shakespeare's own 
time the London theaters had increased to twelve or 
thirteen in number, but these were not all open at the 
same time — some only in summer, others in winter, some 
in the evening, the majority only in the day-time. 

Tivo Classes. Theaters were of two classes, public 
and private, but the term private did not at all imply an 
exclusive audience ; any nobleman could hire any theater 
for his own players to perform in. The chief difiference 
was one of construction, the public theater being on the 
old inn-yard plan, the roof covering only the stage, or 
at most extending over the scaffolding at the sides and 
thus providing for high-priced seats. The pit was 
exposed to sun and weather, and the floor was simply 
the hard earth, which fact gave rise to the term ''ground- 
lings" ; these theaters could be used only in summer and 
in the daytime. The private theaters were entirely 
enclosed and aft'orded entertainment in winter and in 
the evenings. Blackfriars was private, but The Globe 



42 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

was public. The latter was the plainest kind of struc- 
ture, octagonal in form and having very small windows. 
Performance of a Play. The performance began 
promptly at three o'clock and lasted without interruption 
from two to three hours. Black hangings on the stage 
indicated tragedy, blue hangings, comedy. There were 
no actresses in those days ; boys acted the parts of 
women. Women players did not appear on the stage 
until after the Restoration. Respectable women in the 
audience wore masks. Only the wealthy could afford 
seats in the boxes or little compartments at the side of 
the stage ; while the more favored occupied places on the 
stage itself, seated on stools''' or chairs or reclining on 
the rush-covered floor, over which they had spread their 
cloaks. Here might be seen nobles, fops and upstarts, 
also rival actors and dramatists to wdiom the courtesy of 
the- prof ession allowed free admission. Even this favored 
class talked, smoked and drank throughout the perform- 
ance, made sport of the actors, who had to work their 
way through the crowd to get to their places on the 
stage ; and yet Shakespeare's characters never smoke, 
and the habit of smoking is nowhere alluded to in his 
plays. The groundlings in the pit played cards, smoked, 
drank beer, cracked nuts and ate apples, often throwing 
the last-named at the more favored occupants of the 
stage seats. 

The Jig. We are told that "at the close of the piece 
it was customary for the clown in an after-play called 



*In Beaumont and Fletcher's The Knight of the Bnrninq Pestle 
a citizen and his wife have stools on the stage; thev assume in 
part to direct the play, which is constantly interrupted by their 
conversation. ' "^ 



THE THEATER IN SHAKESPEARE'S TIME 43 

the Jig to give an exhibition of his skill, to dance, to 
sing, to make grimaces and, as an accompaniment, to 
improvise comic and not infrequently senseless verses." 
Lack of Scenery. Of real scenery there was none. 
The beginning of the performance was announced by 
the bugle ; at the third blast the curtain parted, disclosing 
a barren stage hung with a tapestry at the back, which 
served year in and year out, being patched in a rough 
way when necessary, or having the rents hidden by rude 
pictures. {A day scene was indicated by a light blue flag 
hanging from the roof, which was exchanged for a 
darker one to indicate night ; a table with pen and ink 
constituted a counting-room ; two chairs, and the scene 
changed to an inn ; a bed pushed forward and behold ! a 
sleeping apartment. We can thus see that the audience 
must depend entirely upon the acting for the bringing 
out of the play ; in fact the acting was everything and so 
v\'as in danger of being overdone. Shakespeare evidentlv 
gives his own idea of a correct performance in Hamlet's 
instructions to the players./ Inigo Jones, who died in 
1562, was the first to introduce movable scenery. That 
Shakespeare had higher conceptions of what the stage 
should be, is evidenced in the prologue to Henry V, 
where he apologizes for the lack which he feels : 

Pardon, gentles all, 
The flat unraised spirit that hath dared 
On this unworthy scaffold to bring forth 
So great an object: can this cockpit hold 
The vastv fields of France? 



Let us, ciphers to this great accoinpt. 
On your imaginary forces work. 



44 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Suppose within the girdle of these walls 
Are now confined two mighty monarchies. 

Some improvements were made in stage settings 
during the latter part of Shakespeare's time, but we 
fancy he would scarcely recognize his own plays in their 
gorgeous settings of to-day. 

Shakespeare's Senior Contemporaries. The three 
dramatists aside from Shakespeare who had most to do 
with bringing order out of this confusion were George 
Peele, Robert Greene and Christopher Marlowe. These 
were all university men. Peele took an Oxford 'degree 
in 1577, Greene boasted of a Cambridge degree received 
in 1578 and one conferred upon him by Oxford in 1588. 
Marlowe took Cambridge degrees in 1583 and 1587. 
Lack of space forbids any review of the works of these 
writers. 

Peele contributed but little of real value to the drama, 
if we except his first production, The Arraignment of 
Paris. He was a poet rather than an artistic dramatist, 
and we may say that his chief contribution to the drama 
was poetry. He lived a life of debauchery and riot. 

Greene wrote a number of plays of more or less 
merit, but none great enough to survive those of Shake- 
speare. He also lived a profligate life, and in 1592, 
deserted by all who had called themselves his friends, 
died a wretched death. 

Under the touch of ]\Iarlowe's genius the drama 
began to assume the form which was so soon to be 
brought to perfection by Shakespeare. In his Edzmrd 
II we get a breath of Shakespeare's English historical 
plays. His Faustus rises to the heroic; it is said that 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 45 

Goethe in his admiration of it exclaimed : "How greatly 
it is all planned!" By some Marlowe is considered to be 
"the first of the English dramatists to understand that 
thought and expression should be in harmony." 

His genius was so great that it is to be regretted the 
tnan in him was not great enough to rise above the 
voluptuousness and infidelity of his environments. His 
tragic death occurred before his thirtieth birthday ; hence 
his work seems almost that of a prodigy. 

Thus was the dramatic soil of England cultivated and 
made rich and mellow for the growth of Shakespeare's 
marvelous genius, a genius which was all his own. 

Shakespeare and His Dramas 

All literature must in a certain sense reflect the age 
in which it is produced : Taine says : "This great age 
alone could have cradled such a child." Dowden says of 
Shakespeare, "If he became the most learned man of all 
generations in one department, the lore of passions, it 
was not because he was of this age or that." Rare old 
Ben Jonson immortalized himself rather than his friend 
when he said : "Shakespeare was not of an age, but 
for all time." 

Scarcity of Records. Strange indeed it seems that 
this man who has given the world the most marvelous 
revelations of the thoughts and intents of men, made no 
effort to record his own personal life. Not one letter 
of his own writing has been found, and only one written 
to him has come to light. It would seem as though this 
great soul, while revealing to men their own souls, were 
oblivious of its greatness. 



46 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

In giving the absolutely known facts of Shake- 
speare's life, gathered from records, it should be borne 
in mind that the actual records of the lives of private 
individuals are always few, even in our own day ; and 
Shakespeare was only a private individual. He was 
never engaged in affairs of Church or of State. He was 
in mature life simply an actor, a theatrical manager and 
a playwright : he belonged to a profession which was 
frowned upon by a very large and constantly increasing 
branch of the Church — the Puritans. A ban was laid 
upon the theaters and they must be built without the pale 
of the city of London. 

Early Biographers. Notwithstanding the apparent 
scarcity of reliable material, the biographers of Shake- 
speare are legion. It will serve our purpose to mention 
here a few of the earliest and the latest of the great 
number. 

John Aubrey (1626-1697), an English antiquary who 
was exceedingly fond of hunting up old books and 
curious legends and traditions, visited Stratford prob- 
ably about 1680, to collect material for a sketch of 
Shakespeare for his "Lives of Eminent Men." His chief 
source of information is said to have been William 
Beeston, an aged actor who died in 1682. Aubrey has 
been called an arch-gossip, but while he is considered 
very unreliable, later research has confirmed many of his 
statements. 

Ninety-three years after Shakespeare's death, 
Nicholas Rowe^= (1673-1718), dramatist, poet and trans- 

•Edited Shakespeare's works in 1700. 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 47 

lator, published the first real biography of the great 
dramatist. This consisted in large measure of traditions 
gathered by Betterton, a famous actor of Shakespeare's 
plays, who visited Stratford for the express purpose of 
learning all of fact or fancy that he could concerning 
his great master. Betterton lived from 1635 to 17 10, 
close to Shakespeare's time ; Judith Quiney, Shake- 
speare's younger daughter, lived until 1662, and Lady 
Barnard (nee Elizabeth Hall), his granddaughter, until 
1670. Betterton was an actor in a theater the manager 
of which was Sir William Devenant, who in his youth 
had known Shakespeare personally. 

Edmund Malone (1741-1812), a highly cultured and 
scholarly man and a very careful and industrious Shake- 
spearean student, thoroughly investigated all public and 
private records of Stratford and official papers preserved 
in London offices, and thereby not only brought to light 
nuich valuable matter concerning Shakespeare and his 
family, but also exposed forgeries which had been foisted 
upon an over-credulous public. 

These constitute the principal earlier sources of 
information. 

Biographers of Our Time. It has been left for our 
own age to do a more valuable work than has hitherto 
been accomplished. James Orchard Halliwell-Phillipps 
(1820-1889), an English antiquarian and famous Shake- 
spearean scholar, through his indefatigable research and 
labor has laid all lovers of the World Poet under lasting 
obligations. The latest edition of his "Outlines of the 
Life of Shakespeare" consists of a thousand pages, and 



48 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

contains a reprint of all extant archives and legal docu- 
ments which throw light upon the great dramatist's 
career. 

Another very patient and devoted Shakespearean 
student, Sidney Lee, has carefully gone over the entire 
ground of former research, has thoroughly investigated 
all obtainable records, both public and private, has sifted 
former biographies and has studied the conditions and 
modes of thought of the times in which Shakespeare 
lived. The result is "A Life of William Shakespeare," 
a modest book of only four hundred and forty-five pages 
including the appendix, which contains much valuable 
matter. Mr. Lee's work shows a spirit of interested but 
perfectly honest investigation, and his book is written in 
a candid, unimpassioned manner that renders it entirely 
trustworthy. It is the biography of fact with but little 
of embellishment; from it the material for this brief 
sketch has been largely gleaned. 

In 1900 Hamilton Wright Mabie, a charming writer 
of our own country, published a delightful story of 
''Shakespeare: Poet, Dramatist and Man." To begin to 
read it means to finish it. We must ever be grateful to 
Mr. Mabie for securing the many interesting and val- 
uable photographs which make his book so realistic. 

From the evidence of those who have with faithful 
care searched the records of the past, the following 
items may be relied on as a basis of fact upon which to 
construct a sketch of the life of our William Shake- 
speare : 

Facts. Baptized in Stratford-on-Avon, Warwickshire, Eng- 
land, April 26, 1564. 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 49 

Parents, John and Mary Arden Shakespeare, 

Attended Grammar School in Stratford, 1571 (?) — 1577 (?). 

Bond against impediments of marriage to Anne Hathaway 
given by Funk Sandells and John Richardson, 1582. 

Susanna, daughter of WiUiam and Anne Hathaway Shake- 
speare, baptized May 26, 1583. 

Hamnet and Judith, twins, son and daughter of WiHiam and 
Anne Shakespeare, baptized February 2, 1585. 

From 1585 to 1596 only one mention of Shakespeare's name 
occurs in the Stratford records; this is in connection with a 
mortgage of Asbies, a property in which he had an interest. 

Left Stratford and drifted to London, 1586 (?). Was soon 
associated with Richard Field, a native of Stratford, as author 
and publisher. 

In December, 1594, was a member of a very influential 
company of players, originally licensed as "Earl of Leicester's 
Company," promoted to "The King's Player" in 1603. In May, 
1603, he was one of its leaders. Under the auspices of this 
company Shakespeare's plays were first presented to the public. 

In 1599 the Globe Theatre was built on the Bankside, 
Southw^ark, and was occupied by Shakespeare's company until 
his retirement. He was a share-owaier in the profits of this 
theater. In 1609-10 his company also played in Blackfriars.* 

Began to write plays about 1591 and continued to do so for 
some twenty years. 

"Venus and Adonis" published 1593. 

Purchased New Place, Stratford, May 4, 1597. From that 
time onw-ard he continued to buy valuable property in and about 
Stratford. 

Paid .:|4o£ for unexpired term of tithes, 1605. 

Obtained coat of arms. 1599. 

Purchased property in London, 1613. 

Spent his last years in Stratford. 

Signed his will March, 1616. 



♦Shakespeare's company played in many important towns in 
England. On page 40 of Mr. Lee's lile of Sliaki-speare lie gives an 
itinerary from 15"J8 to 1614 deduced, be says, from a work of Ilalli- 
well Phillipps. 



50 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Died April 23 (O. S.), 1616. 

Buried in the Church of the Holy Trinity, Stratford, Apr.i 
25, 1616. 

When these dry bones of fact are jointed together, 
rounded out and clothed with the flesh and blood of 
legend, tradition, ancestry, environment, and the customs 
and modes of thought of the times, and the great dram- 
atist himself has breathed into the body the breath of life, 
we can but feel that Mr. Corson is justified in saying 
that we really do know a great deal about Shakespeare. 
The marvel is not that we know so little, but that we 
know so much about the real man. 

Shakespeare s Birthplace. A noted English poet, 
Michael Drayton (1563-1631), a native of Warwickshire 
and a personal friend of Shakespeare, styled Warwick- 
shire "the heart of England." Through this heart flows 
the Avon, upon whose banks reposes old Stratford, as 
peaceful .as the gentle river made so memorable by her 
famous Bard. 

Hamilton Mabie says : "The charm of Stratford-on- 
Avon is two-fold ; it is enfolded by some of the loveliest 
and most characteristic scenery, and it is the homiC of 
the greatest English literary tradition." 

In "Shakespeare's England" William Winter writes: 
'The luxuriance of the country — its fertile fields, its 
brilliant foliage, its myriads of wild flowers, its pomp 
of color, and of physical vigor and bloom, do not fail to 
announce to every mind, how-so-ever heedless, that this 
is a fit place for the birth and nurture of a great man." 

Birth. In the midst of this wealth of natural beauty 
William Shakespeare was born, presumably on April 2^ 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 51 

(O. S.), 1564, for by custom the sacrament of baptism 
was administered on the third day after birth. Notwith- 
standing the fact that the room in which the great poet 
first saw the Hght is shown to visitors, it is not definitely 
known in which of the two Henley Street houses the 
important event actually occurred. 

The Name. Shakespeare was a very common name 
in Warwickshire. Mr. Lee makes this statement : "The 
archives of no less than twenty-four towns and villages 
there contain notices of Shakespeare families in the 
sixteenth century, and as many as thirty-four Warwick- 
shire towns or villages were inhabited by Shakespeare 
families in the seventeenth century. Among them all 
William was a common Christian name."* 

He tells us that "the name of the poet's father is 
entered sixty-six times in the council books of Strat- 
ford, and is spelt in sixteen ways : the commonest form 
is 'Shaxpeare' "; and also that ''the name has been 
I)roved capable of four thousand variations" ;t he fur- 
ther states that of the three signatures to the poet's will, 
the first two have faded almost beyond recognition, but 
that the third is "Shakespeare" ; also that " 'Shakespeare' 
was the form adopted in the full signature appended to 
the dedicatory epistles of the 'Venus and Adonis' of 
1593 and the 'Lucrece' of 1594, which were produced 
under the poet's supervision. "'^'=' 

His Family. There is every reason to believe that 
Shakespeare's ancestors for several generations were 



*Lifo of William Shakespeare, p. 2. 

tP. 284. 

**Life of William Shakespeare, pp. 284. 285. 



52 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

good, substantial yeomen, well-to-do land-owners. It is 
not strange that among so many Warwickshire Shake- 
speares, so many Richards, Johns, Williams, and so on, 
his lineage cannot be traced with absolute certainty. 
There is no doubt that his father was John Shakespeare, 
who moved to Stratford from Snitterfield about 155 1. 
According to tradition, he was engaged in various kinds 
of trades and business, and in early life was very pros- 
perous ; he bought the Henley Street property and 
another with "garden and croft."* He was a highly 
respected citizen, and at various times filled nearly all 
the offices of the town. Later, a turn in the tide of his 
affairs brought great pecuniary embarrassment. 

John Shakespeare's wife, Mary Arden, was the 
daughter of a wealthy farmer of Wilmcote, a nearby 
parish. Her family was one of the oldest and most 
highly respected in Warwickshire ; it is said that she 
could trace her lineage back for six centuries. At her 
father's death she came in possession of a handsome 
property. Very little is known of the personality of 
Mary Arden Shakespeare. Her death on September 9, 
1608, is recorded in the parish register, and it is pleasant 
to think she lived to realize that her son William was on 
the highroad to honor and success. We feel that she 
was a beautiful type of pure, sweet womanhood ; surely, 
no one had higher ideals of women than her illustrious 
son. It is scarcely a stretch of the imagination to fancy 
that Hamlet's ideal mother was none other than Mary 
Arden, and that Brutus's Portia might have been the 



►Croft : A small enclosed field. 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 53 

wife of John Shakespeare; somewhere in Shakespeare's 
life must have come the woman almost to be reverenced. 

Boyhood and Education. The death in infancy of 
two sisters left William the eldest of a family of four 
boys and one girl. His brothers were Gilbert, Richard 
and Edmund, and his sister, Joan ; another sister, Anne, 
died at the age of seven. Of his boyhood but little is 
really known. There is abundant evidence that he had 
at least a fair education for those times when men 
prominent in public affairs so frequently had to make 
their mark in signing public documents. He attended 
the grammar school of Stratford, probably from about 
the age of seven to fourteen years, when the father's 
failing fortunes made it necessary for the boy to leave 
school in order to assist in the support of the family. 

The quality of this grammar school is known. The 
chief instruction was in Latin and literature. The method 
was such that bright boys acquired a fair knowledge of 
many Latin authors, and we may well fancy that the 
brilliant mind of William Shakespeare let nothing slip. 

In the preface to his "Studies in Shakespeare," the 
English critic Churton Collins says that for many years 
the Greek dramatists and Shakespeare have been his 
most intimate companions. We may feel that he speaks 
with authority when he says that internal evidence 'Shows 
Shakespeare was perfectly at home with the Latin 
authors, and that he must have been familiar with the 
Greek — possibly through Latin, into which many of the 
Greek dramas had been translated. There is no other 
way of accounting for the numerous and striking analo- 



54 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

gies between Shakespeare's dramas and these old classics, 
many of which were at that time to be found only in the 
original or in Latin translations. 

Mr. Collins quotes some seventy-five of these parallel 
passages, thus making his argument entirely convincing. 
He further says that fortunately we have proof that the 
boys of the Stratford grammar school knew Latin; a 
letter written in Latin by Richard Quiney at the age of 
eleven years has been preserved, as well as one written 
to him by Abraham Sturley, afterward an alderman of 
Stratford. These boys were contemporary with Shake- 
speare in the Stratford school, and if he did not leave 
school with a good knowledge of Latin and possibly 
some knowledge of Greek, he must have been either 
lazy or stupid, neither of which his students will be 
willing to admit. 

Dramatic Atmosphere of Stratford. His education 
was by no means confined to his schooling. In 1568, 
when he was but four years of age, his father, serving 
as bailiff and chief alderman, welcomed to Stratford the 
actors of the Earl of Worcester's company and those of 
the Queen Elizabeth's company. The people of Strat- 
ford seem to have been lovers of the drama, and it is 
said that they enjoyed frequent visits from traveling 
companies of actors. The town was small and the 
coming of the players would be looked forward to and 
talked about with great interest ; this naturally created 
a dramatic atmosphere about the wide-awake growing 
boy. 

Kenilworth, the residence of the queen's favorite, the 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 65 

Earl of Leicester, was only fifteen miles distant; what 
more natural than for John Shakespeare to take his 
bright boy of eleven to witness the open-air festivities, 
the pageants, the masques, and so forth, which were 
given to entertain Elizabeth during her visit to the castle 
in July, 1575. Some critics have thought that they could 
detect the influence of these fantastic gaieties in The 
Midstimnicr A^ight's Dream (Act 11. Scene 2). 

Influence of Nature. Shakespeare's dramas give 
abundant evidence that his boyish eyes were ever open 
to the richness and beauty of his natural surroundings. 
He knew by name and habit every plant and animal that 
adorned and animated his native town and the surround- 
ing country. He was thoroughly familiar with all of 
the games and sports of English youth and manhood. 
His wr'<-ings all bear undeniable testimony to the fact 
that everything which came into the life of the develop- 
ing youth was educating; nothing escaped his keen 
observation. 

He speaks unadvisedly who writes Shakespeare down 
as uneducated because his education was largely ob- 
tained in the broad university of nature and of human 
nature. No other school could have endowed him with 
the ability to read and to touch the human mind and 
soul through all the ages as long as the heart of human- 
ity shall throb. 

The Poaching Legend. Of his youthful pranks we 
have no reliable evidence ; no doubt they were as 
numerous as those of the average bright, active lad, but 
few stories of them have come down to us, and thev are 



56 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

merely recorded legends. We are indebted to Rowe for 
the well known poaching story. He says that ''Shake- 
speare fell into the company of some wild fellows who 
were in the habit of stealing deer, and who drew him 
into robbing a park owned by Sir Thomas Lucy of 
Charlecote, Stratford; being prosecuted for this, he 
lampooned Sir Thomas in some bitter verses which made 
the Knight so sharp after him that he had to steal ofif 
and take shelter in London." These verses have not 
been found, notwithstanding the humorous lines quoted 
by some biographers beginning, 

A parliament member, a justice of peace, 
At home a poore scarecrowe, in London an asse, 
If Lucy is Lowsie, as some volke miscall it, 
Synge Lowsie Lucy, whatever befall it. 

Mr. Lee says : ''No authenticity can be allowed the 
worthless lines beginning 'A parliament member.' " We 
are also told that "the record of the names of them that 
made riot upon Sir Thomas Lucy, Esq., fails to reveal 
any Shakespeare." Many credit the story, many do not. 
There was a law of Parliament against deer-stealing, 
with penalty attached, and it is stated that after his 
premises were invaded Sir Thomas had still more strin- 
gent poaching laws enacted. However, in those days 
poaching was Considered more in the light of a lawless 
sport than a flagrant crime, as is evidenced from the 
fact that it was of such common occurrence. Even 
could the legend be proved to be fact, it could scarcely 
be written down against the culprit's character in riper 
years; he was doubtless guilty of boyish indiscretions 



i 



SHAKESPEARE AND HTS DRAMAS 67 

(who can plead not guilty?), otherwise he would not 
have been the perfectly natural character which he 
depicts. We only waste words in discussing these idle 
though possibly credible tales ; what should concern us 
is not *'Did he never fall?" but ''How did he overcome?" 
What is the product of his years of discretion? Most 
truly Dowden ^ays : "In the characters of the weak or 
the wicked whom he condemns, Shakspere denies no 
beautiful or tender trait."* Surely the tolerance and 
charity which he everywhere shows toward all of his 
characters should be a mantle large enough to cover his 
own youthful shortcomings. 

Marriage. That Shakespeare early lost his heart is 
evidenced by the fact of his marriage before he was 
nineteen years of age to Anne Hathaway of Shottery, a 
nearby hamlet. She died in August, 1623, and the in- 
scription on her tombstone states that she was aged sixty- 
seven years, which would make her eight years older than 
her husband. Romance hovers over the Anne Hathaway 
cottage and the footpath winding through meadows that 
were flower gardens, or overhung by the white blooming 
chestnut, which young William followed from Stratford 
to Shottery. Very Jittle is known of the personality of 
Anne Hathaway Shakespeare. Her father seems to have 
been a well-to-do yeoman who died shortly before this 
daughter's marriage, leaving a will in which the widow 
and all of the seven children were remembered. Every- 
thing actually known indicates that the Hathaways were 
good, respectable people, and on the most friendly terms 
with the Shakespeares. 



♦Shakspere— His Mind and Art, p. in." : 0th od.. 1R80. 



58 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Children. The parish register records the baptism of 
Susanna, daughter of WilHam and Anne Shakespeare, 
on May 26, 1583. The other children of the marriage 
were Hamnet and Judith, twins, christened February 2, 
1585. Hamnet died eleven years later. Susanna was 
married to Dr. John Hall, June 5, 1607 ; the following 
year the poet's only granddaughter, Elizabeth Hall, was 
born. On February 10, 1616, Judith married Thomas 
Quiney, a wine merchant of Stratford, who was four 
years younger than she ; there is no evidence that her 
father objected to the marriage on this account. The 
children of this marriage were three sons ; the eldest 
died in infancy; the second and third each lived to be 
about twenty years of age. Judith herself lived to be 
nearly seventy-seven years of age. Dr. Hall died Novem- 
ber 25, 1635. Mrs. Hall was buried beside her husband 
in the Stratford churchyard : the inscription on her 
tombstone reads : 

Here lyeth ye body of Susanna Hall, wife to John Hall, 
Gent, ye daughter of William Shakespeare, Gent. She deceased 
ye nth July, A. D. 1649, aged 66. 

Witty above her sex, but that's got all. 
Wise to Salvation was good Mistress Hall, 
Something of Shakespeare was in that, but this 
Wholy of him with whom she's now in blisse. 
Then, passenger, ha'st ne're teare, 

To weepe with her that wept with all? 
That wept, yet set herself to cheere 

Him up with comforts cordiall. 
Her love shall live, his mercy spread 
When thou hast ne're a teare to shed. 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 59 

Elizabeth Hall married Thomas Nash, a man of prop- 
erty, who died April 4, 1647, leaving no children. Two 
years later the widow married John Barnard, who was 
afterward knighted by Charles II, after which she was 
known as Lady Barnard ; she died childless in 1669 or 
1670, and thus the immediate family of the great poet 
became extinct. 

IN LONDON 

It is evident that Shakespeare early fell in with the 
strolling players who visited Stratford and its vicinity, 
and thus his dramatic instinct was awakened. His 
father's failing fortunes and an opportunity to earn in 
London a better livelihood for his family than Stratford 
afforded were sufficient reasons for his turning his atten- 
tion to the city as a business point: just when he went 
is not certainly known, probably about 1586. Aubrey 
says that "William, being naturally inclined to poetry 
and acting, came to London and was actor in one of the 
play houses and did act exceeding well. He began early 
to make essays in dramatic poetry, which at that time 
was very low, and his plays took w^ell. He was a hand- 
some, well-shaped man, very good company, and of ever 
ready and pleasant, smooth wit. Ben Jonson and he did 
gather humours of men daily wdierever they came." 
Hudson says : ''As for the well-known story of his being 
reduced to the extremes of picking up a little money by 
taking care of gentlemen's horses that came to the play, 
I cannot perceive the slightest likelihood of truth in it."* 
Coleridge says: 'That Shakespeare never turned his 



*Life, Art and Character, vol. I, p. 29. 



GO STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

genius to stage- writing, as Theobald* phrases it, before 
he became an actor, is an assertion of about as much 
authority as the precious story that he left Stratford for 
deer stealing and that he lived by holding gentlemen's 
horses at the door of the theatre and other trash of that 
arch-gossip Aubrey." 

Greene's Jealousy. It is quite probable that Shake- 
speare began by serving as a sort of apprentice to some 
actor, which was a common custom at that time. At all 
events, he early worked his way into his legitimate pro- 
fession: what was in him would out. Everything goes 
to show that about 1590, when he was twenty-six years 
of age, the foundations of his future were well laid, and 
that shortly after, his senior contemporaries began to 
show themselves jealous of his performances. Robert 
Greene in his Groatszvorth of Wit denounces "certain 
gentlemen who spend their wits in making plays," and 
says : "Yes, trust them not, for there is an upstart Crow 
among them beautified by our feathers, that with his 
tyger's heart wrapt in a player's hide, supposes he is as 
well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of 
you ; and being an absolute Johannes Factotum, is in his 
owne conceit the only Shakescene in the countrie." 
Greene's publisher, Henry Chettle, in a preface to his 
Kind Hartes Dreame thus apologizes for this unkind 
fling at Shakespeare: 'T am as sorry as if the original 
fault had beene my fault, because myselfe have scene 
his [i. e. Shakespeare] demeanour, no lesse civil than he 
[is] excellent in the qualitie he professes, besides divers 

♦Theobald: An English playwright and Shakespearean com- 
mentator; edited Shalsespeare in 1733. 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 61 

of worship have reported his uprightness of deahng, 
which argues his honesty, and his facetious grace in writ- 
ing that approves his art." There is certainty on some 
points, for instance, that he soon acted parts on the 
stage and that he soon began to recast and to write plays. 
There is evidence that he enacted some of the characters 
in his own plays ; the Ghost in Hamlet and Adam in As 
Yoii Like It have been mentioned as parts played by him. 
He soon acquired stock in the players' company. 

Recasting Plays. It was the custom of companies to 
buy outright the plays from the dramatic writers; thus 
the dramas passed entirely out of the control of the 
authors and became the absolute property of the com- 
panies, and hence could be retouched and recast at the 
will of the manager. This remodeling was sometimes 
done before the play was put upon the stage at all, and 
often with each subsequent performance. This kind of 
work naturally furnished a fine apprenticeship for a dra- 
matic genius like Shakespeare, and accounts for the 
questionable authorship of so many of the plays which 
bear his name. It is thought that he began by retouch- 
ing the second and third parts of Henry VI. The Alte- 
mus edition underscores the lines attributed to this new 
dramatic light : even at this early date in his history 
there is little mistaking Shakespearean earmarks. 

Play JVriting. Shakespeare first tried his hand at 
genuine comedy, and Love's Labou/s Lost is generally 
conceded to be his first entirely original drama. This is 
a light, humorous play, but shows that the author was a 
keen observer of contemporary life in all its phases. In 



62 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Romeo and Juliet, his first tragedy, he shows his master 
hand ; if his place as a dramatist was not assured before, 
it was unquestioned from this time on. The Tempest 
is generally supposed to be his last complete play ; it was 
performed in 1613, but was probably written some time 
before. 

It is impossible in a brief sketch to follow Shakespeare 
through his London life. It is known that he resided 
near the theaters : a memorandum of the famous actor 
Alley n (quoted by Malone) states that in 1596 he lodged 
near the Bear Garden in Southwark; still he counted 
noblemen among his friends. 

As his mind became more centered upon play-writ- 
ing, the business of acting grew distasteful to him ; it is 
probable that he retired from the stage about 1604. 

Return to Sratford. His interest in Sratford never 
ceased, and it is thought that notwithstanding the incon- 
veniences of travel he made yearly visits to his early 
home. Everything goes to show that he was provident 
and a good business manager, and when he accumulated 
money it was to Stratford that he turned for investment, 
showing that he looked upon the home of his boyhood 
as the home of riper years. In 1597, but little more than 
a decade after he left his native place with no capital but 
an active mind, he returned and bought New Place, one 
of the finest properties in Stratford ; he gradually fitted 
it up, and finally was able to place his family in a home 
which meant luxury. After this purchase, he continued 
to make investments in and about Stratford. His towns- 
men began to look upon him as their monied man; the 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 63 

only letter extant addressed to him contains the request 
for a loan. His financial prosperity was the legitimate 
result of his theatrical business : he accumulated because 
he was not a charlatan, a debauchee and a spendthrift, 
like the majority of his dramatic contemporaries. 

He relieved his father from financial embarrassment, 
and in 1599 succeeded in obtaining from the College of 
Heraldry a coat of arms, for which his father had for 
some time been striving. His social position was now 
secure. 

As early as 1608 he stood godfather to the son of a 
friend in Stratford. In September, 161 1, the principal 
men of the town raised a fund for the purpose of getting 
a bill through Parliament for improving the condition of 
the highways : Shakespeare's name appeared among the 
donors ; by this time he had fully identified himcclf with 
the interests of the community and settled down in what 
may be termed active retirement. He gathered his family 
about him in New Place, where he entertained not only 
his friends but notables who came to the town. Here 
Judith was married shortly before her father's death, and 
here Mrs. Susanna Hall lived and cared for her mother 
until the latter's death in 1623 ; from here she buried her 
husband in 1635, and from here her own remains were 
carried to be laid by his side in Trinity Churchyard in 
1649, when the home reverted to Lady Barnard, who by 
her will ordered the place to be sold. 

Death and Will. In January, 1616, Shakespeare felt 
his health failing and made his will, but it remained un- 
signed until the following March ; by it his daughter 



64 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Susanna was made mistress of New Place in strict en- 
tail, with the care of her mother, and was also given 
the greater portion of the entire estate. He passed away 
on April 23, 1616, his fifty-second birthday ( ?), and was 
buried near the north wall of the chancel in the Church 
of the Holy Trinity, Stratford, April 25th. There his 
remains have lain undisturbed ; undoubtedly they would 
long ere this have been removed to repose with the 
illustrious dead of Westminster had it not been for a 
superstitious fear inspired by the following inscription 
carved in the stone tablet above his*tomb: 

Good Frend for Jesus' Sake forbeare 
To digg the dust encloased heare ; 
Blest be ye man yt spares these stones, 
And curst be he yt moves my bones. 

In 1 741 a monumental statue of Shakespeare was 
placed in the Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey, the 
expenses being defrayed by public subscription.* 

The immediate cause of Shakespeare's death is un- 
known. Mr. Winter says: "The story that he died of 
drinking too hard at a merry meeting with Drayton and 
Ben Jonson is idle gossip." Mr. Lee says that "the popu- 
lar legends of his achievements as a hard drinker may be 
dismissed as unproven." We know that he died in honor 
and affluence, in the luxury of his own home and sur- 
rounded by his family, and had the right, as part owner 
of tithes and lay-rector, to claim burial within the church 
of his native town — facts that can be stated of but few 
of his literary contemporaries. 



•*For an account of autographs, portraits, memorials, etc., see 
Lee s Life of William Shakespeare, chap, xviil. 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 65 

Testimony of Contoiiporarics. While Shakespeare':', 
fame increases with the centuries, there were by no 
means wanting those of his own day to appreciate the 
character and genius of their great contemporary. He is 
always spoken of as genial and gentle in manner, mild 
in temper, a strong, firm friend, but no bitter foe. Rowe 
records the tradition that wdien Ben Jonson in 1598, at 
the age of tw^enty-five, offered his first corned}'. Every 
Man in His Huinor, to the actors' company, it was re- 
jected ; Shakespeare, who was nine years Jonson's 
senior, with a reputation fairly w^ell established, got the 
decision reversed, and himself took the character of Old 
Knoweli in the play when it was put upon the stage. He 
rose superior to the contentions of contemporary drama- 
tists and in the War of the Theaters he took no part. 

In 1598 Francis Meres, a very learned divine, in his 
Pal I ad is Tamia, names Shakespeare as the greatest lit- 
erary man of the day. He says : "The muses would 
speak Shakespeare's fine filed phrase if they could speak 
English." 

Richard Barnfield, a rival poet, writes: 

And Shakespeare, thou whose honey flowing vein 

thy praises doth obtain. 

Thy name in Fame's immortal Book have placed, 
Live ever yon, at least in fame live ever ; 
Well may the body die, but fame dies never. 

Kempe, a fellow actor, in speaking of the university 
dramatists, says : **Why, here's our fellow Shakespeare 
puts them all down." 

In 1664 the Duchess of Newcastle writes: *'Shak»?- 



66 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA. 

speare had a clear judgment, a quick wit, a subtile ob- 
servation, a deep apprehension and a most eloquent 
elocution. A poet by nature, he defied the laws of 
classic art, and created a dramatic world of his own." 
In 1676 Dry den wrote: 

But Shakespeare's Magic could not copied be; 
Within that circle none durst walk but he. 

Before his collected dramas were published in 1623, 
the elaborate Gerard Johnson monument was erected to 
Shakespeare's memory, in the chancel of the Stratford 
church, and Leonard Diggs wrote that Shakespeare's 
works would be alive when 

Time dissolves thy Stratford monument. 

Time has not yet entirely dissolved the Stratford 
monument, and appreciation of Shakespeare's works is 
''widening with the process of the suns." 

Translations. Mr. Lee tells us that "the Bible alone 
of all literary compositions has been translated more fre- 
quently or into a greater number of languages than the 
works of Shakespeare." The different editions of Com- 
plete Shakespeare number hundreds, while those of indi- 
vidual plays can scarcely be estimated. 

Shakespeareana. Besides the various editions, the 
volumes of Shakespeareana are almost numberless. The 
Birmingham (England) memorial Shakespeare library, 
which was destroyed by fire in 1879 and restored in 
1882, now contains, it is said, nearly ten thousand vol- 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 67 

limes. The McMillan Shakespeare library in the library 
of the University of Michigan contains five thousand and 
eighty-two volumes ; it is kept locked, and is accessible 
to students only by special permit. Little Shakespeare 
the myriad-minded realized that he was putting the 
world's verdict of himself into the mouth of Hamlet 
when he made his sad hero say of man: 'TIow noble in 
reason ! how infinite in faculty ; in appreciation how like 
a god !" 

Disorder of His Writings. It is said that, indifferent 
to fame, Shakespeare never signed his name to his 
dramas. His writings were left carelessly scattered. 
Some plays found their way into print, but it was left 
for his actor friends John Heminge and Henry Condell 
to assume the responsibility of preserving this precious 
world literature in its first complete edition the famous 
First Folio of 1623.* 

Date of Plays. It is impossible to fix with certainty 
the date of the composition of the individual dramas, as 
none were published until long after they were written. 
The companies, fearing that publication would lessen in- 
terest in the performance, did all in their power to keep 
the plays from the public eye. 

The following table, modeled upon that given by 
Dowden in "Shakspere, His ]\Iind and Art," is probably 
as authentic as any, and is of value as possibly showing 
the poet's periods of mental growth. 



♦In 1903 was begun the publication of a charmina; single-volume 
edition prepared by Charlotte I'orter and Helen (Mark, which places 
for the first time a reprint of the First Folio in th<^ hands of ordi- 
nary readers. It contains, besides the text, a great deal of very 
valuable matter. 



68 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

I Pre-Shakespearean Group 

(Touched by Shakespeare) 

1588-1590 Titns Andronicus 

1590-1591 I Henry VI 

2 Early Comedy 

1590 Love's Labour's Lost 

1591 Comedy of Errors 

1592-1593 Two Gentlemen of Verona 

1593-1594 Midsummer Night's Dream 

3 MaRLOWE-S BAKES PEARE GrOUP 

Early History 

1591-1592 2, 3 Henry VI 

1593 Richard HI 

4 Early Tragedy 

?i59i, 1597 (two dates) . . . Romeo and Juliet 

5 Middle History 

1594 Richard II 

1595 King John 

6 Middle Comedy 

1596 ^Merchant of Venice 

7 Later LI i story 
History and Comedy United 

1597-1598 I, 2 Henry IV 

1599 Henry V 

8 Later Comedy 

(a) Rough and Boisterous Comedy 

?1597 Taming of the Shrew 

?I598 Merry Wives of Windsor 



SHAKESPEARE AND HIS DRAMAS 69 

(b) Joyous, Refined, Romantic 

1598 Much Ado about Nothing 

1599 As You Like It 

1600-1601 Twelfth Night 

(c) Serious, Dark, Ironical ^ 

?i6oi-i6o2 All's Well that Ends Well 

1603 Measure for Measure 

?l6o3 (revised 1607? ) Troilus and Cressida 

9 Middle Tragedy 

1601 Julius Caesar 

1602 Hamlet 

10 Later Tragedy 

1604 Othello 

1605 King Lear 

1606 Macbeth 

1607 Antony and Cleopatra 

1608 Coriolanus 

1607-1608 Timon of Athens 

11 Romanxes 

1608 Pericles 

1609. > Cymbeline 

1610 .*. . .The Tempest 

1610-1611 Winter's Tale 

12 Fragments 

1612 , Two Noble Kinsmen 

1612-1613 Henry \'III 

Poems 

?r592 Venus and Adonis 

1593-1594 Lucrece 

?i595-i6o5 ^. . . . Sonnets* 

•For the latest and undoubtedly the most correct interpretation 
Of the Sonnets see Sidney Lee's Life of William Shakespeare. 



70 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Shakespeare as a Dramatist 

A noted critic has said: "If an academy of immortals 
chosen from all ages could be formed, there is no doubt 
that a plebiscite of the English speaking peoples would 
send Shakespeare as their representative to that august 
assembly."* 

His Strength. The volumes that have been written 
upon the marvelous genius and art of this master-mind 
but echo this expression of appreciation. With reason 
we may ask why the crown of kingship is so universally 
conceded to this man. Others have surpassed him in lit- 
erary form ; others in mastery of language, in beauty of 
imagery, in fact in all that goes to make up literary art 
as commonly understood. Then why? Shakespeare 
lives with ever increasing life because he has put into 
his works more of nature, more of human nature and 
more of the divine nature combined, than any other poet. 
Dumas Pere said that ''Shakespeare, after God, created 
most." 

Snider answers the question thus : ''There can be no 
doubt in the statement that the unique and all surpassing 
greatness of Shakespeare lies in his comprehension of 
the ethical order of the world." Many things are felt 
without being analyzed and understood ; while this cor- 
nerstone of Shakespeare's greatness has not always been 
emphasized by Shakespearean critics, it has been felt by 
Shakespearean readers. Shakespeare's greatness grows 
in the minds of men because they see in his characters 



•Edward Dowden In Warner's Library, p. 13167. 



SHAKESPEARE AS A DRAMATIST 71 

the reflection of themselves. The ambitious, unprincipled 
plotter and schemer, seeking only his own selfish ends, 
sees not King Claudius but himself. He who would wade 
through blood to accomplish his purpose sees not Rich- 
ard III but himself. The narrow, wily, scheming politi- 
cian sees not Polonius but himself. Shakespeare is rather 
a character revealer than a character builder. 

Three Distinguishing Points. Saintsbury says: 
"Three chief distinguishing points in Shakespeare are 
restraint in the use of sympathy with suffering; restraint 
in the use of voluptuous excess, and humor. These points 
are not found in any of his contemporaries." Every 
thoughtful reader of Shakespeare will recognize the 
truth of these statements. 

Even in Ophelia's pathetic case no effort is made to 
work up sympathy for her, or to harrow the feelings of the 
audience or of the reader ; the pathos of the situation re- 
sults from the character itself. Ophelia is innocent, pure 
and lovable, but weak ; she has no force of character to 
resist a great strain, and consequently when the strain 
comes she gives way. Shakespeare does not make her 
give way for the sake of effect. 

Shakespeare never makes voluptuous excess attractive ; 
voluptuousness is always manifested by voluptuous char- 
acters who work out their own punishment through their 
own misdeeds. Vice may be portrayed, but one cannot 
imagine any reader of Shakespeare's plays being so at- 
tracted by the vicious characters as to wish to follow in 
their footsteps ; even the greatest admirer of the inimita- 
l)le Falstaff can see that he comes to his miserable end 



72 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

as the natural result of his life, and this surely does not 
make such a life attractive. 

In like manner Shakespeare's humorous characters 
and scenes account for themselves. Gratiano does not 
say witty things just for the sake of amusing his hear- 
ers, but because his humor is inherent, and he can no 
more help giving vent to it than Hamlet can help show- 
ing by his outward manner that his inky cloak is truly 
a symbol of his inner heart-grief; while it may be ''but 
the trappings and the suits of woe," he has ''that within 
him which passeth show." Grave-digging is a mere 
matter of business with the grave-diggers in Hamlet, and 
to them calls for no more solemnity than the digging of 
a well to a well-digger. The man who is by nature a wit 
or a humorist carries his natural characteristics along 
with him as easily and as readily as though they were 
entirely appropriate to the occasion. These characters 
come into the plays perfectly naturally; they are never 
dragged in for effect. At the same time, when they ap- 
pear in tragedy, they usually do come in just when the 
audience or the reader feels the need of relief from the 
strain of the tragic, and here Shakespeare shows his 
marvelous genius. 

Three Distinct Purposes. Saintsbury says also that 
Shakespeare's works show three distinct purposes: 
"First, to tell in every play a dramatically complete 
story ; second, to work that story out by means of purely 
human and probable characters ; third, to give such form 
and ornaments to the working out of the play as might 
please the playgoers of his day. In pursuing the first 



SHAKESPEARE AS A DRAAIATIST 73 

two, he was the poet and dramatist of all time. In pur- 
suing- the third he was the intellectual playwright."* 

Shakespeare Universal. At the same time the critic 
calls attention to the fact that tlie third point never in 
any sense interferes with the other two, that even here 
Shakespeare is universal. While almost all the plays of 
the other old dramatists have entirely ceased to be acted, 
or at least are acted onl\' as mere curiosities, no generation 
since his death has had the slightest difficulty in adapting 
nearly all of Shakespeare's plays to the stage of its own 
time. 

In studying Shakespeare's plays as literature, we must 
always bear in mind that the author's primary object 
was to write a play to be acted on the stage, and not to 
write a literary work to be read and which would be- 
come classic. Surely only the master-mind could so suc- 
cessfully accomplish both ends. Up to the time of 
Shakespeare the play lacked the unity and beauty of the 
dramatic art ; it was his work to build upon the founda- 
tions laid -that perfect dramatic structure which has sur- 
vived the centuries and stands to-day superior to all 
others. 

CHARACTERIZATION 

What a character is to us depends upon our point of 
view, the light in which we place it. Shakespeare sees 
his characters from all points of view. Shakespearean 
students generally agree that he has put less of him.self 
into his characters than most other authors. Hudson 



♦History of Elizal)Ptlian Literature, pp. 168-170. (In tiuiying a 
play keep tliese points in mind.) 



74 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

thinks that Shakespeare's own moral soul is reflected in 
Henry V; this he considers an exception. Shakespeare's 
characters are true to themselves ; having once disclosed 
themselves, we always know where to find them, what 
to expect of them. 

Shakespeare's Women. How w^onderfully is his fine 
conception of womanhood expressed in his beautiful 
women ! With what dignity and true wifely affection 
Portia asserts her equality with Brutus and claims her 
right to know his secrets ! Life is not worth living with- 
out him. Imogen is "of too pure eyes to behold iniquity," 
so pure, innocent and faithful that she cannot suspect the 
possibility of evil in others. Queen Katherine when cast 
off still remains faithful to the dissolute Henry VHI. 
So certain of herself does Rosalind feel that it never 
once occurs to her that donning man's attire may subject 
her to unpleasant situations. 

Characters and Plots. The perfection of Shake- 
speare's characters lies in the fact of their perfect natural- 
ness ; they are the actual men and women whom we have 
known, with whom, we can converse as in daily life, and 
not simply men and women in a book. His admirable 
characters are not too near perfection to be human ; his 
base characters are not too base to be reclaimed; even 
old Jack Falstaff died "a babbled of green fields. "'•' 

We constantly find our interest centered more and 
more in the characters than in the plot.- The plot is a 
background to bring out the characters, instead of the 
characters being the mere instruments used in working J 

*Said to be an insertion of Theobald. (See note, p. 60.) 



SHAKESPEARE AS A DRAMATIST 75 

out the plot, as with many other playwrights and story- 
tellers. 

Still, while Shakespeare does not sacrifice character- 
painting to plot, neither does he sacrifice plot to charac- 
ter-painting ; what he does do is to so blend the two so 
that they strengthen each other and produce a perfect 
whole. We find no really weak characters ; even the fool 
is always a good fool and strong in his way, and his wit 
often contains the wisest sayings : the serving maid, 
^laria, is quick-witted enough to write the letter which 
entraps Malvolio and which contains the oft repeated 
truism, "Some are born great, some achieve greatness, 
and some have greatness thrust upon them." In Loves 
Labour's Lost, how quickly Moth, in his very first ap- 
pearance, awakens our sympathy and draws us to him ; 
one must read his whole conversation with Armado fully 
to appreciate his quick wit. 

Justice to Characters. Shakespeare's justice to his 
characters is shown in his treatment of King Claudius, 
whose deep-seated villainy is disclosed only to be de- 
spised ; at the same time his business ability is shown 
throughout the play, and his able statesmanship is so 
clearly brought out in the affair with Norway that if it 
were possible for a man utterly devoid of moral char- 
acter to be a good king, Denmark would have no reason 
to complain of her sovereign. Ulrici thinks that it is 
impossible for a man either from his own knowledge of 
the world or from his own individual experience to have 
so deep an insight into character of all kinds, from the 
normal to the more abnormal and unusual states of mind, 



76 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

such as madness, idiocy and so on, as Shakespeare 
shows: he says it can only be the result of "deep poet- 
ical insight into human nature and life in general." Is 
it not by reason of this deep poetical insight that as ^Ye 
read we see the characters only, and for the time lose 
sight of the worker in the magnificent results of his 
workmanship ? 

If Shakespeare determined all cases for us, his char- 
acters and his plays would soon lose their interest. It 
must be that he does not tell us whether Hamlet was 
really insane or only feigning insanity, or else after a 
lapse of three hundred years the ablest critics would not 
still be discussing the question. 

Dvamatic Purpose of Characters. Shakespeare's char- 
acters all serve a definite purpose ; when this is accom- 
plished they are not allowed to drag on through the play, 
but drop out. The dramatic purpose of Falstaff is to 
throw light upon the conduct of Henry, and when he is 
cast off by the prince there is no further occasion for the 
existence of this grotesque individual ; his mission is 
accomplished, and he cannot consistently appear as a 
character in Henry V, but as if to satisfy us concerning 
his end, Mistress Ouickly-Pistol gives a most pathetic 
account of his death, in which she would have us feel 
that at last his soul is at rest from its wanderings, safe 
in "Arthur's bosom," by no means in hell. No stud\' is 
more interesting than that of Shakespeare's characters 
and his method of handling them. 



SHAKESPEARE AS A DRAMATIST 77 



THE SUPERNATURAL 

The unseen, the mysterious, the supernatural, has 
always had a wonderful fascination for the human mind. 
In Shakespeare's time the beHef that the affairs of men 
were greatly affected by supernatural influences still pre- 
vailed ; ghosts still walked, witches tantalized, teased and 
took possession of men, women and children ; porten- 
tous events were heralded by convulsions and strange 
manifestations of nature. Small wonder, then, that our 
great dramatist, with his keen insight into human nature, 
should make so wonderful a use of the supernatural in 
his plays. Did Shakespeare himself believe strongly in 
the supernatural? Was he himself a ghost-seer? Had 
he the Weird Sisters within him? Were all his life's 
discords and conflicts harmonized in the Forest of 
Arden? We may not probe too deeply into his soul ex- 
periences, but we certainly find in his works nearly every 
phase of the mysterious realm and its influences upon 
the minds and affairs of men ; he seems to comprehend 
the supernatural world quite as fully as the natural. He 
calls up ghosts, spirits, wraiths, hobgoblins at will, and 
makes them vital elements of his dramas. There could 
be no Hamlet without the ghost of his father to urge 
him on to revenge. The true character of Macbeth 
could be revealed only by means of the Weird Sisters. 
The greatness of Caesar and the un justness of his assas- 
sination were impressed upon the minds of the people by 
means of the strange and supernatural signs and mani- 
festations of nature ; the ghost of the murdered man 
haunts Brutus. The not quite smothered conscience of 



78 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Richard III summons the disembodied spirits of those 
whom he has foully murdered. 

In the field of Comedy, Nature seems to be the great 
healer. All differences are adjusted in the ideal realm 
of the Forest of Arden. The problem of Imogen and 
her lost brothers is worked out in Nature's forests, away 
from the habitations of men, where discords do not jar. 
In Midsummer Nighfs Dream fantasy holds sway. And 
what shall be said of The Tempest? It seems the super- 
natural world itself dramatized ; it is almost too ideal for 
human interpretation. Some believe that this play was 
Shakespeare's last work ; certain it is that it was written 
after he had passed through the most of life's conflicts. 
Had he, like Prospero, fled with his intellect from the 
outer world of discord? Could he with magical -power 
command the forces of the spiritual and mental realm 
and make them obey him? Had he subdued the sensual 
Caliban in his nature ? Could he control the sprite Ariel, 
and make him work out everything for good and bring 
all into harmony at last ? However we may answer these 
questions, surely in The Tempest Shakespeare shows 
himself master of the ideal realms : some think that here 
he has reached the spiritual heights, where he can look 
down and see himself working out his own dramas and 
his own problems. Certain it is that he now revels in the 
supernatural world ; he manipulates its powers and forces 
at will ; in fact, it is his own world ; he peoples it with 
the creatures of his own imagination and possibly his 
experiences. Eliminate the supernatural element from 
Shakespeare, and Shakespeare's charm would be gone. 
No longer could he be truly called the myriad-minded. 



SHAKESPEARE AS A DRAMATIST 79 

Still we may ask, as. a motive power in the movement 
of the play, how is this element used, what power has 
it? In Hamlet the Ghost reveals the deed and charges 
Hamlet to revenge it ; but is the influence of the Ghost 
strong enough to impel Hamlet to action? Macbeth 
consults the Weird Sisters, but when they do not echo 
his own evil thoughts and desires, he exclaims : 

Infected be the air whereon they ride ; 
And damn'd all those that trust in them! 

The ghosts of the victims of Richard HI simply fore- 
tell the issue of the morrow's battle. 

In his "Moral System of Shakespeare" (pages 302 
to 306) Richard Moulton lays down three propositions: 

I Supernatural agency in Shakespeare has no power 
to influence events unless by influencing persons. 
II The supernatural has no power over men except by 
their own consent. 
Ill The influence in Shakespeare of the supernatural on 
persons is seen to emphasise and assist, but never 
to initiate or alter, a course of action. 

Mr. Moulton sums up his chapter on this topic as 
follows : "Supernatural agency has a place in the world 
of Shakespeare. Among the forces of life, it has nc* 
power except to accentuate what already exists ; but it 
has great power to illuminate life for those who are life's 
spectators."* 



*It is well to bear these statements in mind while reading not 
only the Ideal Dramas but others which are tinged with the super- 
natural element. 



80 . STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 
Forms of the Supernatural in Shakespeare. 

Qhost — a Objective, or reembodied spirit, b Subjective, 
or disembodied spirit, jN.Iay influence for good or 
evil. 

Witches — Unnatural beings, never human, ugly, always 
intent upon evil, leading men to destruction. 

Portents — Convulsions in nature ; portending dire evils 
.or accompanying them. 

Fairies — Fanciful creations of dreamland. Daint}' little 
creatures who wage war upon the ugly ; intent upon 
pranks, trying to tease, not criminal. Hold sw^ay in 
the court of love. 

Sprites — Like Ariel, whose mission is to transform every- 
thing into good. The opposite is seen in Caliban. 

Angels — Ministering spirits from the unseen world. (As 
in Henry VIII.) 

Ideal Realms, where all discords are harmonized, as the 
Forest of Arden. 

Oracles, gods and goddesses of- the classical drama. 

Fiends that appear to La Pucelle. 

HUMOR 

Shakespeare's humor is never-failing. It has been 
well said that *'the humor of Shakespeare is more than 
a laughter-producing power ; it is a presence ancl pre- 
vading influence throughout his most earnest creations.""-''' 

The humor of youth manifests itself in fun, appre- 
ciates the ridiculous, and too frequently enjoys the wit 
which is unkind ; the maturitv of vears tones down these 



'Dowden. Shakspere — His Mind and Art— p. .316 (.3d ed.). 



SHAKESPEARE AS A DRAMATIST 81 

tendencies to an appreciation of that genuine humor 
which is never personal and cannot be unkind. It seems 
that with experience Shakespeare grew to reahze more 
and more the universahty of humor ; that the human 
heart has by nature, and must have, a deep vein of 
humor in it to keep it sweet and fresh ; to keep it from 
becoming- Corroded by the vexations, cares and stern 
reaHties of Hfe. 

]\Iany suppose that Love's Labour's Lost was Shake- 
speare's first play ; it is rollicking fun from beginning 
to end, pure and innocent. Every situation is so humor- 
ous that it seems to say: '1 am here just for the fun of 
it, just because I cannot help it." In the plays of his 
later years the humor is different, more quaint perhaps, 
but never entirely absent, not even in his most serious 
tragedies ; the heart would break under a constant strain 
of tears, unrelieved by the laugh which must at least 
temporarily dispel the clouds. 

A German poet says: "Shakespeare inoculates his 
tragedy with a comic virus, and thus it is preserved from 
the great disease of absurdity.'' 

Sympathy z^'ith the Fool. His humor is by no means 
confined to the fool and the clown, but often manifests 
itself in the gravest characters : even the somber Hamlet 
is not devoid of it: when the King asks him, "Where is 
Polonius?" he replies, "In heaven, send thither to see; 
if your messenger find him not there, seek him i' the 
other place yourself." We are as truly in sympathy with 
the clown as with the crown ; we never feel contempt 
for the man who makes the fun : as Hudson truly says : 
'*A fellow-feeling springs up between us and them ; . . . 



82 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

we are far more inclined to laugh with them than at 
them; and even when we laugh at them we love them 
the more for that which is laughable in them. ■ So that 
our intercourse with them proceeds under the great law 
of kindness and charity. . . . And so the pleasure 
we have in them is altogether social in its nature, and 
humanizing in its effect, ever knitting more widely the 
bands of sympathy."* 

We feel safe in saying that Shakespeare's peculiar 
method of handling humor is all his own. We seek in 
vain for it in other authors. 

Melancholy as is the grave-diggers' scene in Hamlet, 
both in subject and in situation, there seems nothing in- 
congruous in the quaint humor of the grave-diggers 
themselves, and we feel the mind somewhat relieved 
from the tension which it has so long sustained. 

Shakespeare's humor never descends to unkind wit, 
to that sarcasm and irony which cuts undeservedly and 
hence disgusts us. The chief objects of his mirth are 
the follies and foibles of the times, and not the misfor- 
tunes or weaknesses of individuals ; even from this point 
of view his good friend Ben Jonson could still call him 
"Gentle Will." 

Shakespeare's Prose 

Dramatic art is poetic, and naturally seeks poetic 
forms of expression. Marlowe burst the shackles of 
rhyme and gave the drama the freedom, of blank verse ; 
but while this form seems to be the natural vehicle of 



'Shakespeare: His Life, Art, and Characters, vol. i, p. 185. 



SHAKESPEARE'S PROSE 83 

expression lor the drama, so comprehensive is dramatic 
Hterature that the master playwrights find prose better 
adapted to express the dignity of certain types of 
thought and the easy colloquial flow required for the con- 
versations of the common people, clowns, fools and cer- 
tain others. 

StreiigfJi of Prose. Poetic as is Hamlet's wonderful 
tribute to man, ''What a piece of w^ork is man ! how noble 
in reason ! how infinite in faculties," one instinctively 
shrinks at the thought of attempting to throw it into any 
form of poetic expression ; or Shylock's equally wonder- 
ful and heartrending portrayal of the humanity of the 
Jew and the insults heaped upon him by the Christian: 
"I am a Jew. Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew 
hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? 
. . . If you prick us, do we not bleed? If you tickle 
us, do we not laugh? If you poison us, do we not die? 
If you wrong us, shall we not revenge? If we are like 
you in the rest, we will resemble you in that.'' Launce- 
lot's dialogue with his conscience could not be translated 
into poetic form ; and who could imagine Old Gobbo 
speaking in anything but prose ? 

Shakespeare's discernment ahvays selected the best, 
and wath his experience and mental development we find 
the rhyme-ending of the lines in his earlier plays grad- 
ually dropping out, until his masterpieces express them- 
selves in the freedom of blank verse interspersed w'ith 
the still less hampered prose. The value of prose in dra- 
matic expression seemed to grow upon him ; in the very 
earliest plays we find none ; then it is sparingly intro- 



84 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

duced ; then the two forms are nearly equally balanced ; 
in Much Ado and As You Like It prose outweighs verse, 
while in Merry Wives and Tzvclftli Night we searcli 
almost in vain for verse. 

The Prose Drama Shakespeare's. As Marlowe gave 
the drama the freedom of blank verse, so Shakespeare 
gave it the freedom of prose ; in fact the prose drama 
was Shakespeare's own creation, and the interested stu- 
dent of the master-poet is amazed not only by the w^on- 
derful effectiveness with which prose is introduced into 
the poetic drama, but by the w^onderful prose itself ; and 
still, while much has been wTitten about Shakespeare's 
prose, how^ seldom do we find his most ardent admirers 
discussing him as a prose wTiter. The English critic 
Churton Collins is an exception ; he has made a very 
thorough study of the poet's prose. In his admirable 
essay on this subject he says: 

What did Shakespeare do for English prose? He was the 
creator of colloquial prose, of the prose most appropriate for the 
drama. He showed for the first time how that prose conld be 
dignified without being pedantic ; how it could be full and mas- 
sive without subordinating the Saxon to the Latin element ; how 
it could be stately without being involved ; how it could be 
musical without borrowing its rhythm and its cadence from the 
rhetoricians of Rome. He made it plastic. He taught it to 
assume with propriety every tone ; he showed its capacity for 
dialectics, for expression, for narrative, for soliloquy. He puri- 
fied it from archaisms. Indeed, his diction often differs little 
from that of the best writers in the eighteenth century. 

Mr. Collins cites the epilogue to Henry IV as an illus- 
tration of purity, rhythm and composition. 



i 



STTAKKSPKARES PROSE 85 

He further says : 

Shakespeare's prose is a phenomenon as remarkable as his 
verse. In one way. indeed, it is still more remarkable ; the 
prose of Shakespeare stands alone. . . . For every other 
form of composition he had models, . . . but his prose is 
essentially original ; and how greatly he contributed to the 
development of this important branch of rhetoric will be at 
once apparent if we compare his prose diction with the 'diction 
both of those vvho preceded and of those who followed him. 

Fiz'c Styles of Prose. Mr. Collins has discovered five 
distinct styles in Shakespeare's prose, although he says 
these styles by no means classify all of the poet's prose, 
they simply constitute an aid for those who would study 
the great poet-prose writer. These styles he terms the 
euphuistic, the colloquial, modeled on the language of 
vulgar life ; the prose of higher comedy ; prose pro- 
fessedly rhetorical, and highly wrought poetical prose. 

]\Ir. Collins cites copious illustrations of the first 
style ; he says Love's Labour s Lost is from beginning 
to end one mass of euphuism ; some of the dialogues in 
As Yon Like It and IVinfer's Tale express themselves 
in this style. 

Osric in Hamlet is evidently intended to ridicule Lily's young 
gentlemen. . . . Shakespeare's satirical parodies proved that 
he fully recognized the puerility of euphuism, and directly 
imitates it, generally speaking, for the purpose of laughing at it. 

The colloquial prose is the language of the baser 
characters, of Touchstone, of Bottom, of Mrs. Quickly, 
"and of the rabble when the rabble are brought on the 
stage ;" and it is seen in perfection in the pot-house 
scenes in Henry IV, or in Kent's onslaught on the 



sr, STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

steward in Lear. In Shakespeare the colloquial prose is 
simply the natural language of the characters themselves. 
Of the third style, that of "higher comedy," Mr. 
Collins says : 

This is a style of which Shakespeare was the absolute and 
immortal creator, a style in which he has never been surpassed. 
This is the diction of his ladies and gentlemen when they do not 
express themselves in rhyme or blank verse. ... It abounds 
in wit and epigram. ... It reflects every shade and every 
tone of thought with exact fidelity. As the vehicle of light and 
playful irony it is eminently happy. 

Mr. Collins cites many passages in illustration of 
these points ; for example, Jaques's speech beginning, 
*'I have neither the scholar's melancholy, which is emu- 
lation." Orlando says: "Forever and a day." Rosa- 
lind replies : "Say 'a day' without the 'ever.' No, no, 
Orlando. Men are April when they woo, December 
when they wed." In closing his remarks upon this point 
Mr. Collins says : 

In this particular style of Shakespeare's prose there is one 
very obvious peculiarity. In addition to the colloquial ease which 
marks it, there is seldom wanting a sort of literary eloquence, 
as though he were creating a language which is at once real and 
ideal, at once the speech of beings among whom we are moving 
here, and of the beings of that world which exists only in the 
imagination of the poet. And yet the two styles are in perfect 
unison with each other. 

The illustrations of the prose professedly rhetorical 
are fewer because this style rather infringes upon the 
province of blank verse, and it is often a little difficult to 
see why the poet has not made use of the poetic form. 



SHAKESPEARE AS A TEACHER 87 

Brutus's speech over the body of C?esar is an ilhistration. 
Of the last style, ''the highly wrought poetical prose," 
the author says : 

This is the style where Shakespeare has raised prose to the 
siiblimest pitch of verse, and it is. it must be confessed, the rarest 
of all his modes of expression. . 

In illustration he quotes Hamlet's statement of his 
loss of interest in the world, which contains his well- 
known magnificent exclamation on the grandeur of man, 
and says: 

It would be hard to cull from the whole body of our prose 
literature a passage which should demonstrate more strikingly 
the splendor and the majesty of our language, when freed from 
the shackles of verse. 

Shakespeare is the universally acknowledged master 
of dramatic verse, but a study of his prose reveals his 
wonderful genius quite as much as the study of his verse. 

Admirers of our greatest poet-prose writer will enjoy 
the careful reading not only of Mr. Collins's essay on 
"Shakespeare as a Prose Writer" but also of the other 
very scholarly essays in his "Studies in Shakespeare." 

Shakespeare as a Teacher 

Morals. In order to understand and appreciate the 
Shakespearean drama one must know Shakespeare's 
England, the temperament of her people, their mind and 
mode of thought, their attitude toward the theater, and 
the conditions under which plays were presented. Some 
of these points have been touched upon and cannot be 
discussed at length here. We can only say that the low 
plane of thought, prevailing from the Commons to the 



88 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Court, which investigation reveals is simply astounding; 
the gross immoral conditions about the theaters vras not 
confined to the outward surroundings, but this low life, 
which was nothing short of vice itself, was carried on 
inside the theater by the playgoers themselves. 

It was for audiences of this character that Shake- 
speare had to write his plays ; it was before audiences 
of this character that he had to present them. His 
tragedies were to entertain people who could be expected 
to be entertained only by tragedies that were tragic to the 
extent of being horrible ; his comedies were to amuse 
those who were most amused by coarseness and vulgar- 
ity ; refined wit was beyond their appreciation. 

Treatinoit of humoral Characters. V\lien studied in 
the light of his own times, Shakespeare stands forth as 
a great n:oral teacher. That he is a moralizer no one 
will claim ; that he is thoroughl}' moral we think must 
be evident to every careful student. If he is to paint 
life universal and complete, he cannot eschevv' immoral 
characters, but he can and does show; his morality in 
the handling of these characters ; he never paints them 
in colors so attractive as to make them models for imita- 
tion. In each case the character must sustain itself ; as 
Ian jMaclaren says, "If Posty \\\\\ tell lies, I cannot help it." 
If it is necessary to e-xpose a hideous phase of life, that it 
may be condemned and thus serve as a lesson, Shake- 
speare does not hesitate to expose it. \'ice may be par- 
doned, but not condoned. Even in his liberality, which 
the extremely fastidious might fancy tends to looseiiess, 
he never confounds vice with virtue — 



SHAKESPEARE AS A TEACHER 89 

But virtue, as it ucvcr will be moved, 

Though lewdness court it in a shape of heaven, 

So lust, though to a radiant angel link'd. 

Will sate itself in a celestial bed, 

And prey on garbage. Hamlet, i. 5. 

Dowden says : "The central principle of Falstafif's 
method of living is that tlie facts and laws of the world 
may be evaded or set at defiance, if only the resources of 
inexhaustible wit be called upon to supply bv brilliant 
ingenuity wdiatever deficiencies may be found in char- 
acter and conduct. Therefore Shakspere condemned 
Falstail inexorably."''-' And again, "The supremacy of 
the moral laws of the world was acknowledged by Shak- 
spere in the minutest as well as in the greatest concerns 
of life. He ixaches the ultimate truths of human life 
and of character through a supreme and individual en- 
ergy of love, imagination and thought;." 

His dramatic contemporaries show traces of gross 
immoralit} ; Shakespeare never does. Even Antonv, 
while still in the toils of the bewitching Cleopatra, curses 
himself and his charmer — 

Oh. thy vile lady; 
She hath robbed me of my sword. 
She hath betrayed me, and shall die the death. 

.-Intoity and Cleopatra, ?':'. 12. 

Having "lived in such dishonour that the gods detest my 
baseness," he begs his faithful friend to take his life. 

lago says 'tis public!}- riunoured that Othello has vio- 
lated the sanctity of his (Tago's) home: he gets his 
revenge by undermining Othello's confidence in Desde- 

♦Shaksporo— His Mind and Art. p. .SO.'. 



90 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

inona, so that Othello at last takes her life and then his 
own. If Othello has been guilty, he dearly pays the 
penalty. 

Gervinus says : "The relation of Shakespeare's poetry 
to morality and to moral influence upon men is most per- 
fect.'"'' Coleridge says : "Shakespeare has no innocent 
vice ; he never renders that amiable which religion and 
reason alike teach us to detest, or clothes impurity in the 
garb of virtue like Beaumont and Fletcher. Even the 
letters of women of high rank in his age were often 
coarser than his writings. "f Hence we see that the tend- 
ency of his work was to uplift and purify the moral 
atmosphere of his times. 

Institutions of Family and State. Shakespeare is 
always loyal to the institutions of the Family and the 
State. The theme of Much Ado About Nothing is the 
permanence of the Family Institution : Beatrice and 
Benedick are led to found a family against their original 
will ; while that arch-enemy of the f-amily, Don John, 
after all of his fiendish plots, is finally thwarted by the 
marriage of Claudio and Hero. Macbeth, wdio describes 
himself as having 

In blood 
Stepped in so far that, should I wade no more, 
Returning were as tedious as go o'er, 

Macbeth, Hi, 4. 

in order to get and keep the crown simply to satisfy his 
own ambition, is finally overtaken by Nemesis, and the 
crown passes to the son of the gentle Duncan. When 

*Shakespeare Commentaries, p. 890. 
tShakespeare and Other Dramatists, p. 62. 



SHAKESPEARE AS A TEACHER 91 

the members of the whole royal family of Denmark are 
swept out by their own deeds, Fortinbras, the mediated 
individual, is proclaimed king and the government suf- 
fers no disturbance. The fittest always survive. 

This moral system runs through all of the great poet's 
dramas, binding them into one whole."^ Hudson says : 
"Shakespeare found the English drama a low, foul, dis- 
reputable thing, chiefly in the hands of profligate adven- 
turers, and he lifted it out of the mire, breathed strength 
and sweetness into it, and made it clean, fair and honor- 
able ; a structure all alive with beauty and honest delec- 
tation." 

RELIGION 

As Shakespeare is not a moralizer, neither is he a 
preacher, but Dowden says : *Tf we recognize in a moral 
order of the world a divine presence, then the divine 
presence is never absent from the Shaksperian world." 
And again, '*To many, at the present time, the sanity 
and the strength of Shakspere would assuredly be an 
influence that might well be called religious."^* To what 
extent Shakespeare's own personal religious beliefs or 
soul experiences are reflected in the character of his 
plays, it would be unwise to attempt to conjecture. 

While the poet's will opens with a common legal 
form, w-e have no right to question his sincerity when he 
savs : 



♦The iinitv of Shakespeare's works Is admirably brought out by 
Richard G. Moulton in his very heipful book entitled "The Moral 
System of Shakespeare." Applying Cnrlyle's test "that the only 
speech that is worth listening to is that which throws light on the 
matter." this book should be read by all who would understand 
Shakespeare. 

** Shakspere — His Mind and Art, pp. 24, 29. 



92 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

First, I commend my soule into the handes of God my Cre- 
ator, hoping and assuredlie believing through thonelie merrittes 
of Jesus Christe my Saviour, to be made partaker of lyfe ever- 
lastinge, and my bodye to the earth whereof yt ys made. 

That he was a student of rehgious subjects, his works 
well show. Hamlet is studied by specialists of the sub- 
ject- of insanity, but it may almost be considered a work 
of rehgious intensity. Hamlet himself is completely 
under the control of his religious conscience until after 
he is guilty of killing Polonius. Claudius, wicked as he 
is, cannot shut his eyes to what true repentance consists 
in ; Horatio has overcome the world and has risen to a 
state of perfection attained by few mortals — 

for thou hast been 
As one, in suffering all. that suffers nothing; 
A man that fortune's buffets and rewards 
Hath ta'en with equal thanks. Hamlet. Hi. 2. 

The Bible. It has been said that if the Bible were 
totally destroyed, more of it could be reproduced from 
the pages of Shakespeare's dramas than from any other 
source. 

With the incoming of the Reformation, followed 
closely by the Puritan movement, the Bible became an 
object of general interest. It began to be thought that 
what was good for the priest was good for the people. 
From the middle of the sixteenth century onward num- 
bers of translations and editions of parts, sometimes of 
the whole Bible, were printed. "The Geneva version 
was imported during the early years of Elizabeth's reign 



SHAKESPEARE AS A TEACHER 93 

and was printed in England in 1561. Between 1568 and 
161 1 eighty editions were printed, some complete. "=^ 

"Efforts were made to promote the reading of the 
Scriptures among the common people. Bishop's trans- 
lation was read in the churches, the Geneva translation 
was generally read in families. "'"==•' "It became at once 
the people's book in England and Scotland ; this was 
the cherished volume in all Covenanting and Puritan 
households."! 

Shakespeare, growing up during this time of awaken- 
ing interest in the Bible, would naturally acquire famil- 
iarity with it by a kind of absorption, if in no other way 
— enough, at least, to attract him to it as a field of study 
in maturity, when he realized what a power it would 
be in the development of his characters and in the work- 
ing out of his plays ; this his writings abundantly show.f 
This docs not necessarily imply that he was especiallv 
religiously inclined ; that he had more than a superficial 
knowledge of the Bible nuist be evident to any who will 
take the trouble to look up the scriptural references in 
which his works are so rich. In many instances the deli- 
cacy with which scriptural thought is interwoven with 
the expressions of the characters is trul}' remarkable. 
A few quotations will suffice for illustration : 

Hamlet says : 

For murder, though it have no tongue, will speak 
With most miraculous organ. Hamlet, it. 2. 



♦Encyclopaedia of Biblical Literature, McClintoclj and Strong. 
Vol. Ill, p. 215. 

**lIistoiy of the Bible, Kitto, p. 34. 

tEadies Engli.sh Bible. Vol. 11, p. l.j : quoted in Bible Encydo- 
poedia (Bishop I-'allo\vs). Vol. t, p. 270. 

iJSee The liible iu Shakespeare, by William Burgess (1003). 



94 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Be sure your sin will find you out. Num. xxxii. 23. 

The devil hath power 
To assume a pleasing shape. Hamlet, ii. 2. 

Satan himself is transformed into an angel of light. 

Cor. xi. 14. 

There is special providence in the fall of a sparrow. 

Hamlet, v. 2. 

Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing? and one of them 
shall not fall on the ground without your Father. Matt. x. 2g. 

Hamlet is full of Scriptural allusions. 

In Richard II, Act v, Scene 2, read the speech of 
York beginning, 

As in a theatre the eyes of men, 

Closing with 

But heaven hath a hand in these events, 
To whose high will we bound our calm contents. 
To Bolingbroke are we sworn subjects now, 
Whose state and honour I for aye allow. 

For promotion cometh neither from the east, nor from the 
west, nor from the south. 

But God is the judge: he putteth down one and setteth up 
another. Ps. Ixxv. 6, 7. 

He removeth kings, and setteth up kings. Dan. ii. 21. 

In Measure for Measure, Act i. Scene 2, we read: 

The words of heaven — on whom it will, it will ; 
On whom it will not, so; yet still 'tis just. 
I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will 
have compassion on whom I will have compassion. 

Rom. ix. 15. See also Exod. xxxiii 19. 



SHAKESPEARE AS A TEACHER 95 

In Act II. Scene 2, Isabella says : 

Alas, alas ! 
Why, all the souls that were were forfeit once; 
And He that might the vantage best have took 
Found out the remedy. How would you be, 
If He, which is the top of judgment, should 
But judge you as you are? O, think on that, 
And mercy then will breathe within your lips, 
Like man new made ! 

For all have sinned, and come short of the glory of God. 

Rom. Hi. 23. 

If thou. Lord, shouldest mark iniquity, O Lord, who shall 
stand? Ps. cxxx. 3. 

For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten 
Son. that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have 
everlasting life. John Hi. 16. 

And be renewed in the spirit of your mind ; 

And that ye put on the new man, which after God is created 
in righteousness and true holiness. Eph. iv. 23, 24. 

In All's Well That Ends Well, Act 11, Scene i, 
Helena says : 

He that of greatest works is finisher 
Oft does them by the weakest minister : 
So holy writ in babes hath judgment shown. 
When judges have been babes. 
Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings hast thou ordained 
strength. Ps. vUi. 2. 

Thou hast hid these things from the wise and prudent, and 
hast revealed them unto babes. Matt. xi. 2^. 

God hath chosen the weak things of the world to confound 
the things which are mighty. -f Cor. i. 27. 

Great floods have flown 
From simple sources. 



96 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Thou shalt smite the rock, and there shall come water out of 
it, that the people may drink. And Moses did so in the sight of 
the elders of Israel. Exod. xvii. 6. 

and great seas have dried 
When miracles have by the greatest been denied. 
And Moses stretched out his hand over the sea; and the 
Lord . . . made the sea dry land. Exod. xiv. 21. 

These few illustrations sufiBce to show Shakespeare's 
wonderful knowledge of the Bible, and there is really no 
limit to the use which he makes of It throughout his 
works. One who has made a special study along this 
line says that the names of God and Christ appear eight 
hundred and fifty-seven times in Shakespeare's works. 
The Tatler III says of Shakespeare : 'This admirable 
author, as well as the best and greatest men of all ages 
and of all nations, seems to have had his mind thor- 
oughly seasoned with religion." 

Music. Before the advent of Puritanism music was 
a prominent feature of the daily life in England. The 
spinet was the favorite instrument, from the Crown to 
the common people. Queen Elizabeth herself played the 
spinet and the lute. We are told that the barber-shops 
frequently contained a spinet for the amusement of its 
waiting customers. Shakespeare had every opportunity 
for hearing music, and if he did not understand its tech- 
nique, his soul certainly responded to its soul. Speak- 
ing through Lorenzo, he says : 

The man that hath no music in himself, 

Nor is not moved with concord of sweet sounds, 

Is fit for treasons, stratagems, and spoils. 

Let no such man be trusted. Merchant of Venice, v: i. 



SHAKESPEARE AS A TEACHER 97 

Surely he who gave utterance to those Hues had music 
in himself, or he could never have shown such wonder- 
ful appreciation of the influence of the harmony of sound. 
The Merchant of Venice alone speaks volumes on this 
subject. The untamed herds 

Or any air of music touch their ears, 
You shall perceive them make a mutual stand, 
Their savage eyes turned to a modest gaze 
By the sweet power of music. 

Portia would have Bassanio thrown under the spell 
of music while he makes the choice of the caskets. 

Then if he lose, he makes a swan-like end, 
Fading in music. 

The poor old mad King Lear is lulled to sleep by soft 
music ; gentle, distracted Ophelia gives vent to her feel- 
ings in snatches of song. 

As You Like It is full of song. Jaques calls for it; 
he says: 'T can suck melancholy out of a song as a 
weasel sucks eggs. More, I prithee, more." The Duke 
Senior would have song while poor starved Adam feeds. 
Let the reader follow the play through to the end, where 
the clown closes with a song. 

Thus we might trace this sweetest of all arts through 
play after play ; but as these studies are designed to be 
merely suggestive, Vv'e leave the student to follow these 
hints for himself. Enough has been said to show that 
music in the great dramatist's plays is no accident. It 
must have come from the soul, or it would not have been 
of such constant recurrence. 



98 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Universal Knowledge* 

The general knowledge shown in Shakespeare's 
works is almost as remarkable as his general insight into 
the human mind and heart. Attention has already been 
called to his knowledge of the Bible. Bishop Charles 
Wordsworth has written an entire book upon the subject. 

Lazv. Lord Campbell, an eminent lawyer, has writ- 
ten a work entitled ''Shakespeare's Legal Acquirements." 
He says, "He knows to a nicety the technicalities of the 
bar, the formulas of the bench." In fact, his legal knowl- 
edge seems so great that some have thought that at some 
time he must have served time in a lawyer's office. John 
Shakespeare was so constantly engaged in public affairs 
that his son doubtless learned much of legal matters and 
terms while assisting him. 

Medical Knou'ledge. Shakespeare's knowledge of 
the human mechanism is the astonishment of the medical 
fraternity. There are in his works more than seventy 
references to the circulation of the blood, although Har- 
vey did not publish his treatise on the subject until 1628. 

He could tell from the appearance whether a body 
gave evidence of natural death or death by violence. In 
Henry VI, Act in. Scene 2, Warwick discusses the death 
of Duke Humphrey : 

Oft have I seen a timely-parted ghost, 

Of ashy semblance, meager, pale, and bloodless, . . . 

But see, his face is black, and full of blood. 

The full description is very graphic. 



I 



'See Brandes's William Shakespeare, chap. xlv. 



UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE 99 

He seemed to have the knowled^i^e of an expert of 
the working of the insane mind in all its varions phases. 

Science. He evidently accepted the, at that time, 
dimly conceived idea of gravitation, although the clearly 
defined laws of Newton and Kepler were not given to 
the world until after his death. In Troilus and Cressida, 
Act IV, Scene 2, we read : 

The strong base and budding of my love 
Is as the very centre of the earth, 
Drawing all things to it. 

Nature. Shakespeare's knowledge of nature was 
marvelous ; he certainly held communion with her visible 
forms and to him she spoke a various language. One 
who has taken the trouble to count says that the poet 
makes mention of no less than two hundred kinds of 
flowers, herbs, etc. Even this must be a low estimate, 
since nearly fifty forms of plant life are in some way 
alluded to in Midsummer Night's Dream alone. What 
wonderful Shakespearean bouquets could be gathered, 
and what Shakespearean banquets could be served ! And 
then Perdita and Ophelia can give us the language of 
tlowers. The latter says : 'There's rosemary, that's for 
remembrance, . . . and there is pansies, that's for 
thoughts." (Hamlet, Act iv. Scene 5.) The ideas that 
rosemary strengthened the memory and that pansies 
were emblems of sad thoughts were of very ancient 
origin. Falstaff says (Merry Wives) : "Let the sky rain 
potatoes," and it is interesting to note that this is prob- 
ably the first mention of the potato after its introduction 
into Ireland by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1584. 



100 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Animal Life. Shakespeare's knowledge of Jiisect life 
and the characteristics and habits of birds and the larger 
animals, especially of dogs and horses, seems inexhaust- 
ible. Whole books have been written upon this subject. 
As a boy living in the country, he certainly must have 
made good use of his eyes. The ordinary reader is 
liable to overlook many of these points by reason of his 
own ignorance. How many know that the greyhound is 
the only dog that can catch its prey while running at 
full speed? "Thy wit is as great as the greyhound's 
mouth; it catches." {Much Ado About Nothing, Act 
V, Scene 2.) Space forbids multiplying references; look 
for them. They are not like Gratiano's reasons — two 
grains of wheat hid in two bushels of chafT. When you 
have them they are well worth the search. 

Typography. An English printer named Blades in 
1872 published a book entitled "Shakespeare and 
Typography," in which is shown that Shakespeare was 
perfectly familiar with everything pertaining to the 
printing-office. So well versed was he in the idiomatic 
language of the printer that he might have been a 
"printer's devil." Some believe that at one time he had 
a pecuniary interest in a publishing house. 

Vocabulary. It is said that Shakespeare's vocabulary 
contains 15,000 words, while the Old Testament contains 
but 5,642, and, as has been stated, his v/orks have been 
translated into more languages and tongues than any 
other book except the Bible. 



II 

PRINCIPLES AND STRUCTURE 

OF THE 

SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



1 



II 

PRINCIPLES AND STRUCTURE OF THE 
SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA* 

Its Ethics 

Ethical Principles. First, the Shakespearean drama 
is ethical. It portrays a world of conflict — principles in 
conflict. The dramatic collision is the collision of ethical 
principles ; the individual is the bearer of these prin- 
ciples, he is imbued with them. Man is controlled from 
within, he is responsible for his own acts, he works out 
his own destruction or salvation as the case may be. 
In his subjective conflicts he must compel the subordina- 
tion of the Bad to the Good or be crushed in the 
struggle. 

Solution. Secondly, the Shakespearean drama finally 
brings all conflicting elements into harmony : peace 
always follows war. This peace may be brought about 
in different ways, for the drama is realistic, it is true 
to life. The discordant element must be destroyed. If 
the individual does not repent he nmst die, as in 
Tragedy. The element of mediation may enter ; the 
individual repents, harmony is restored without the 
necessity of death, and the play becomes Comedy. In 
Pure Comedv discord may be caused by absurdities or 



'Based primarily upon Snider's Commentaries. 
103 



104 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

blunders, which, exposed, give way to harmony, when 
the play becomes farcical. In Tragedy harmony is 
restored through the fundamental principle of Nemesi-s 
or the return of the deed upon the doer. Some critics 
do not accept this theory in its fullest extent, but we 
believe that we are not misrepresenting Shakespeare 
when we say that harmony, once disturbed, is in the end 
always restored in the particular form of the Ethical 
World through which the drama moves, either through 
retribution or through mediation, or, as in some of the 
lighter comedies, through the clearing of the atmos- 
phere of misunderstanding or blunders. 

Nemesis. Further, when the return of the deed upon 
the doer is stated as a fundamental principle or law of 
the Shakespearean drama, wx understand that this law 
applies and works out as in real life. A corrupt heart 
and mind cannot develop a moral life — the wages of sin 
is death. But while Nemesis follows the evil-doer and 
retribution seems to be the general law of the universe, 
all forces, both moral and physical, combine to make one 
whole, and an individual may become involved in a 
great catastrophe and thereby meet a violent death 
which is by no means the result of an evil deed of his 
own. Every violent death is not necessarily a tragic 
death in the dramatic sense, "^^ 

The Principle of Sacrifice. We must not overlook 
the principle of sacrifice, which is often extremely 
pathetic. Is not this the principle of redemption through 



*In the dramatic sense, the tragic death is the result of the evil 
deed. 



STRUCTURE 105 

Christ, who manifested himself to the world in the 
person of Jesus, suffering death on the cross for the 
sins of humanity? This principle of sacrifice, or death 
of the innocent for the guilty, is always pathetic. Some- 
times the effort may fail, as in the case of Cordelia, who 
failed to save her father, but lost her own life in the 
attempt. 

Cordelia. From an ethical standpoint, Cordelia's 
pathetic end is variously accounted for by different and 
we may say equally sympathetic interpreters. One tells 
us that her great devotion to the Family brings her into 
collision with the State, which is a higher principle. In 
order to save her father, she invades his country with a 
French army, thus sinning against patriotism, and she 
pays the penalty by a tragic death. Another thinks that 
she is quite justifiable in bringing a foreign army to 
resist her wicked sisters, and sees in her violent death 
the "dramatic motive of pathos" ; she devotes herself to 
her father and her life is sacrificed in her effort to save 
him. This certainly is a beautiful interpretation, and 
the pathos of her death is intensified by the fact that her 
father has so unjustly banished her from his heart and 
from his kingdom. 

Lear. But this drama is primarily the drama of 
Lear. Lear disturbs the harmony of the ethical institu- 
tions of both State and Family. Long )ears of absolute 
power have developed the tyrant dominated by selfish- 
ness. Weary of care, he would shirk the responsibilities 
of government but retain the pleasures of its outward 
show. He forsakes reason and suffers the penalty of 



106 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

being forsaken by reason. The State is nothing to him ; 
he would throw government aside Uke a cast-off gar- 
ment. His daughter Cordelia cannot play false like her 
treacherous sisters, and he thrusts her from him as an 
impatient child tosses away the toy which cannot obey 
his bidding. If she goes with some bitterness in her 
heart, her inherent love of truth develops into the truth 
of love, and she returns, only to be sacrificed. 

Retribution. Since Lear's sin is so great that 
Nemesis will be satisfied only with his tragic end, his 
deed returns upon his own head. Nemesis follows 
Regan and Goneril, and they suffer the penalty of their 
own wicked deeds. If we see in Cordelia's violent death 
only dramatic pathos, this by no means infringes upon 
the general law of retribution, but simply shows that 
while evil deeds bring their own punishment, all mis- 
fortune is not necessarily the result of wrong-doing. 

Shakespeare's Ethical World. In Shakespeare the 
dramatic collision is not necessarily a collision between 
absolute wrong and absolute right. Rather, his Ethical 
World is peopled with a gradation of principles. It 
nevertheless holds true that the lower is always subordi- 
nated to the higher. The soul, often perplexed, may find 
it difficult to decide which is higher and which is lower: 
this it is the province of the Dramatic Solution to deter- 
mine. Shakespeare's individuals, like individuals in the 
everyday world, are not always controlled by the abstract 
principles of right and wrong, but often by their own 
ideas of right and duty; hence let us bear in mind that. 



STRUCTURE 107 

in this study we must consider the word ethical as not 
exactly synonymous with the word moral in the abstract. 
Notwithstanding this, Shakespeare always treats man 
as a responsible being, and holds him accountable for 
his deed, and the principles of his Ethical World accord 
with the divine decree that the evil deed shall contain 
within itself the elements of destruction, and hence the 
deed returns upon the doer, and harmony can be restored 
in the end only by the destruction of the individual, as 
in Tragedy, or by the destruction of the discord, as in 
Comedy. 

What Marlowe only vaguely felt — that the hero was the 
author of his own catastrophe — Shakespeare clearly perceived and 
distinctly expressed.* 

If we would understand Shakespeare, the greatest of 
all dramatists, we must study his work in this light, and 
not as a mere plaything to amuse and while away the 
passing hour. 

Plan of Shakespeare's Ethical World 

Shakespeare's Ethical World presents two sides or 
phases, the positive and the negative. The positive 
phase shows two grand divisions running through all of 
his dramas, the Institutional or Objective and the Moral 
or Subjective. 

POSITIVE phase 

I Institutional : 

While institutions seem to be external to man, and 



'The Drama, vol. xiii^ p. 54. 



108 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

to hold him subject to their laws, they are really created 
by him, and while they impose upon him certain restric- 
tions, they do so only to make possible his larger liberty. 
It is only through institutions that man rises out of 
himself and becomes a part of universal life ; but har- 
mony with institutions usually implies conflict passed 
through. 

The Shakespearean drama deals mainly with two 
institutions, the Family and the State. In the legendary 
drama the outward collision is primarily in the Family, 
while in the historical drama it is in the State. 

(a) The Family: 

Love is the great life-giving principle of the world ; 
it is the divinely ordered basis of the Family. The love 
of the man and the woman leads to the establishment of 
the Family, which gives rise to the family relation — love 
of husband and wife, of parent and child, of brother and 
sister. In the institution of the Family collision occurs 
between parents and lovers, as in The Merchant of 
Venice; between husband and wife, as in Othello; 
between parents and children and between sisters, as m 
King Lear. It is interesting to note that when parental 
authority collides with the child's right of love, Shake- 
speare almost invariably decides in favor of the child, as 
in the case of Shylock and Jessica. 

(h) The State: 

As institutions, the Family and the State are interde- 
pendent. In points of time and importance in the social 
organism, the Family stands first. The object of the 
State is to secure justice among men ; it is organized to 



STRUCTURE 109 

protect society; it legalizes and thereby establishes the 
Family and hence must protect it. Thus politically the 
State is above the Family: the Family may be invaded 
in order to preserve the State; the husband and father 
may be torn from the Family to defend the State. Hence 
the collision of the State may be, 

First, with the individual or the family ; 

Secondly, internal ; that is, between political factions ; 

Thirdly, external ; that is, with another State. 

These two ethical institutions, the State and the 
Family, constitute the foundation of all of Shakespeare's 
plays and may be considered a basis for the classification 
of his dramas. 

(c) Property: 

A minor ethical institution is Property, which may 
be sordid as a principle, but still has its rights which 
may not be ruthlessly violated, as shown in the Merchant 
of Venice. 

(d) World Spirit: 

Above these institutions rises a fourth. The principle 
that Nemesis follows the evil-doer holds true with 
nations as well as with individuals. It is right that the 
human race should be grouped in nations. Nations 
organize government as a means of protection to their 
members ; the true government must protect the weak 
against the selfishness and tyranny of the strong; when 
it fails to do so, it must sufifer the penalty. 

The world's history teaches this truth. We see 
nations rise and fall. Why? Some power brings them 



no STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

into existence because they have a right to exist ; when 
they have violated the principles upon which their 
existence was based, the same power operates to make 
them face their deeds and suffer the penalty. 

Rome from a small village on the Tiber grew to be 
the Mistress of the World. Rome had a right to exist ; 
by uniting under one government the small nations of 
southern Europe and the Mediterranean she forwarded 
the civilization of the world and paved the way for the 
spread of Christianity when the time came. But when 
she became corrupt and ceased to fulfill her mission, she 
fell ; broken into fragments, she lost her place among 
nations. 

France would not heed her warning and had to wade 
through streams of blood to solve her problem. The 
United States, whose corner-stone was liberty, allowed 
herself to enslave a race, and the blood of her sons was 
spilled in the breaking of the shackles. Russia is to-day* 
working out her problem. 

Thus we see an ethical force at work, above and 
greater than the State, calling the State into existence, 
and in turn calling it to account for the manner in 
which it holds its trust. 

What is this force? How shall we name it? Is it 
the spirit of justice, which compels our inner conscious- 
ness to recognize that God has created all men equal in 
their right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness ? 
Is it the spirit of love, which compels justice to grant to 
all mankind the liberty to exist, and to exist under as 
comfortable conditions as possible? Name it as we 

•1906~ 



STRUCTURE 111 

will, the world's history tells us that this force has been 
the ruling power over nations from their beginning ; and 
that it ever sounds its note of warning to nations in their 
days of great prosperity when they begin to entrench 
themselves in selfishness and greed, and grind the help- 
less. 

For want of a better term we may call this great 
controlling force the World Historical Spirit, or simply 
the World Spirit. This spirit declares that in the end 
the best must survive. 

(e) The Church: 

Stiir another institution, which has been a great force 
in the world, is the Church. Of this mere mention is 
necessary, since Shakespeare deals with it only inci- 
dentally. 

2 Moral or Subjective. 

The law of the Moral or Subjective division of 
Shakespeare's Ethical World is the subordination of the 
low^er to the higher, which is the internal law of duty. 
'The individual has within himself the absolute test of 
conduct, the law of conscience." Since men differ in 
opinion, it will readily be seen that this law may conflict 
with institutions. This fact was illustrated in America 
in ante-bellum days, when the conscience of the North- 
ern individual rebelled against the Southern institution 
of slavery, and in violation of the law of the State he 
aided slaves in their escape to freedom. Now Shake- 
speare is decidedly institutional, and when the Moral 
colHdes with the Institution, the latter prevails, as in 
■Airs Well That Ends Well. Morality is sacrificed in 



112 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

order to preserve the institution of the Family, and 
while we maintain that Shakespeare is a moral writer, 
still we cannot help wishing that in this instance he had 
found other means of securing the Family. As an 
institutional writer he certainly is moral. 

NEGATIVE PHASE 

The negative phase shows the individual imbued with 
this spirit to be hostile to both institutions and morals ; 
he is always a disturbing element and seems to be devoid 
of conscience. First, we see the indifferent bad person. 
He is governed only by his own bad passions ; he is 
utterly indififerent to both institutions and morals, and is 
constantly in collision with them. Murderers merely 
hired to kill care nothing for the State nor for human 
life ; they care only for the paltry sum of money offered 
as the price for the deed. Caliban seems utterly devoid 
of ethical principles. 

Secondly, there is the active bad person, who con- 
stantly plans the destruction of both institutions and 
morals : in him we see the true villain. No better illus- 
tration can be cited than Richard III. To accomplish 
his own selfish purpose he utterly disregards both insti- 
tutions and morals ; but as he would crush both, his 
deeds return upon his own head, and he dies an igno- 
minious death. 

Sumniiwy 

For convenience we may tabulate a summary of these 
points in their ethical order : 



Ethical World ^ 



STRUCTURE 113 

r I World Spirit 

Institutional | 2 State 

(Objective) 1 3 Family 

r Positive \ I 4 Property . 

Moral j 

(Subjective)] ^^^^ "^ Conscience 



I Indifferent 



[ Bad Person [ 

In the working out of the drama, these principles 
take possession of the individual and become the main- 
spring of all his actions, and we see the Institutional 
person, the Moral person, and the Negative person ; 
these principles collide and the play begins. In Julius 
Cccsar Cassius the Institutional person represents the old 
Roman spirit of opposition to the one-man power. 
Opposed to him is Caesar the Institutional person, 
embodying the spirit of the one-man power, the monarch 
of the State. These two collide, and the play is started. 

The Plot 

Incidents of Plot and of Story. The plot consists of 
the successive steps in the plan by which the final result 
is obtained. The incidents constituting these steps may 
be called incidents of plot. An incident by which an 
incident of plot is worked out may be called an incident 
of story. Hamlet's father. King of Denmark, meets a 
mysterious death. Hamlet suspects foul play, but there 
is no external evidence. The ghost of the dead man 
reveals the deed ; this is an incident of plot. Claudius 



114 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

suspects that Hamlet thinks him guilty, and therefore 
feels that the young man is dangerous and must be put 
out of the way. How is this removal to be accom- 
plished? Claudius will prove Hamlet insane, but how? 
He will have Rosencrantz and Guildenstern entrap him: 
their efforts to do so are incidents of story. 

The incident of the bond by which Shylock can claim 
a pound of Antonio's flesh, in case he fails to pay the 
borrowed money when it becomes due, is an incident of 
plot; the lovemaking and the marriage of Gratiano and 
Nerissa are incidents of story. 

Purpose of Characters. In every well-constructed 
drama each character has its own definite dramatic pur- 
pose. When this purpose is served, the character drops 
•out. If it serves a single purpose, or is simply inci- 
dentally woven in with the incidents of story, its office 
may be slight, and the individual need not be accounted 
for personally. The play of Hamlet is introduced by 
Francisco on guard during the first watch. When he is 
relieved by Bernardo and Marcellus his purpose is 
served and we have no further interest in him ; he is 
in no way connected with the working out of the plot 
and does not have to be accounted for personally. 

If, however, a character is a vital factor of the plot 
or in the working out of the plot, the outcome of th^ 
drama must account for him and show the effect of his 
actions upon himself as an individual. Hamlet gives us 
to understand that Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are 
guilty accomplices of the King, and they must suffer the 
penalty of their deed, although this may be their only 



STRUCTURE 115 

crime. If the final outcome of this play did not bring 
all of the guilty individuals to their natural tragic end, 
the strength of the drama would be lost. 

In The Merchant of J^enice Salanio and Salarino 
serve as a background to bring out Antonio ; and by 
occasionally filling in and giving information to the 
audience aid in the forward movement of the play, 
though they are not connected with the plot, and when 
they drop out they are not missed. Shylock pursues to 
the bitter end his hatred of Antonio as a Christian and 
as a gratuitous money-lender, and when he is caught 
in his own trap his life is spared only on condition that 
he renounce his religion and accept Christianity, and at 
his death bestow all that of which he dies possessed 
upon his runaway daughter and her Christian husband. 
Thus he sufifers the penalty of his hatred, both of the 
Christian and of the gratuitous money-lender. Nemesis 
is satisfied and Shylock is disposed of ; the only dis- 
cordant element in the play has no place in the atmos- 
phere of love and harmony which reigns in Portia's 
veritable "Forest of Arden" in Belmont, where at last — 
uncertainties, strains and trials over — the lovers all find 
themselves, together with Antonio, the tie which binds 
together all the elements of the play, reveling in the 
delights of moonshine, music and love. 

Sources of Plot. Shakespeare, following the custom 
of his time, made no pretense to originality in the 
sources of his plots. In his English historical series, he 
follows Holinshed's chronicles more or less closely as 
suits his purpose, but it must be borne in mind that 



116 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Holinshed's chronicles are by no means reliable history, 
that the chronicles in some instances contain more fable 
than actual history. Someone has said that Shakespeare 
has done more than any other author toward making a 
knowledge of English history widespread. While this 
may be true, we should remember that Shakespeare's 
object was, primarily, to write a good drama, one which 
could be effectively played upon the English stage in his 
own time, and not to write a history to be read and stand 
the test of critics as to accuracy. Consequently dates, 
ages, situations, and so on, are often greatly distorted. 
King John affords an excellent illustration of this ; it 
serves the dramatic purpose better to make Prince 
Arthur much younger than the Arthur of history. His- 
tory tells us that when Portia heard of the death of 
Brutus she suffocated herself with hot coals; in the 
drama of Julius CcEsar the close of the quarrel between 
Brutus and Cassius is made more pathetic by Brutus's 
announcement of Portia's death — "O Cassius ! I am sick 
of many griefs. . . . Portia is dead. . . . Im- 
patient of my absence . . . she fell distract, and 
. . . swallowed fire." We may, however, safely rely, 
upon Shakespeare for a picture of the manners, customs 
and characters of the times. The foreign plays follow 
North's Plutarch closely.* 

The Legendary plays are nearly all based upon 
legends that were familiar in Shakespeare's time; some 
think that the plot of Loves Labour's Lost, so far as it 



*For excellent articles on this point, we refer the stuaenr to 

Snidei-'s Commentaries on the Histories, Hudson's Introduction to 

King John, and Neilson's Introduction to Macheth in the Lakeside 
Classics i Scott, Foresman & Co.). 



STRUCTURE 117 

may be said to have a plot, is Shakespeare's own. But 
it would seem that these borrowed plots were, after all, 
only suggestive to the great dramatist; he changed the 
situations, the characters and their motives, to suit his 
own dramatic purpose. In the old story lago kills 
Desdemona. Shakespeare makes her die at the hands 
of Othello. Merely taking his cue from a legend, he 
revivifies the whole story, giving it such new motives, 
life and purpose that the old is lost and he works out a 
play that is all his own. Snider says: 

As in the Tragedies and Comedies, so also in the Histories, 
Shakespeare takes his materials wherever he can lay his hands 
on them, in drama, chronicle, biography; they are his by divine 
right of poetic seizure. He does not invent them any more than 
he invents the English language v^hich he uses. He orders, 
transforms, deepens incidents and characters, plots are furnished 
him from the storehouse of Time, where lies also his inheritance ; 
these he takes and transforms into poetry. His originality is 
shown in the right use of his materials; his creative power is 
the poetic transfiguration of all that he touches.* 

Dramatic Structure 

Shakespeare's forces and characters work in groups. 
These various groups work together for the accomplish- 
ment of a purpose; they work up to a climax, and then 
down to the close. For convenience. Snider calls these 
groups and phases of action Threads and Movements. 

Threads. The Threads may vary in number and 
complexity, but for a good understanding of a play it is 
essential to get them fixed in the mind. The Threads in 

•Histories, Introduction, p. v. 



118 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Hamlet are easily traced. Claudius secretly kills his 
brother, the King, marries his widow, and becomes king 
himself. He must conceal his crime. Hamlet suspects 
foul play ; his suspicions are confirmed by the revelation 
of the ghost, who charges him to revenge the deed. 
Claudius suspects that Hamlet suspects him, and the two 
are arrayed against each other, and the conflict begins. 
Hamlet and those who in any way sympathize with him 
or assist him in carrying out his purpose, constitute the 
Hamlet Thread; the King and those who assist him in 
carrying out his purposes constitute the King's Thread. 
According to their importance, these Threads naturally 
fall into groups. Polonius's work is quite different from 
that of a mere messenger who simply executes a com- 
mand of the king: hence he would fall in a leading 
group, while the messenger would be placed in a subor- 
dinate group. The King, the Queen, the Polonius 
family, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, and the rest, 
according to the character of their work can be arranged 
in groups, a, b, c, and so on. Still another group, that 
of the State, consists of the courtiers Voltimand and 
Cornelius, and any others who have to do only with 
affairs of State, but have nothing whatever to do with 
anything relating to the deed which forms the basis of 
the drama. 

In Romeo and Juliet the principal Threads are 
Hatred and Love, which we may follow out thus : 

[ Montagues j" jy^^^^^^^^^ ^^ Institutions ; both of 
I Hatred. and Family and of State. 

Capulets 



J 



STRUCTURE il9 

f Builders of Institutions by 
{ Romeo, a Montague | union through love. Would 

2 Love < and \ establish the Family. Thus 

1^ Juliet, a Capulet harmony would be restored 

I to the State. 

3 The State — Represented by the Prince. 

The third Thread, thoiigli not prominent, is not 
unimportant; the Prince appears only three times, but 
always as a mediator trying to reconcile the discord 
between the two houses ; this Thread is finely interwoven 
with the two principal Threads. Hatred is so intense 
that it places itself above Institutions ; it would destroy 
the Family and even the State to satisfy its enmity. 
Love — represented by Romeo and Juliet, a Montague 
and a Capulet of the younger generation — is so intense 
that it overcomes the hatred of the ancient houses and 
establishes the Family. In the end the Love Thread 
triumphs ; for while the individuals are sacrificed, in the 
presence of the dead bodies of Romeo and Juliet the 
lieads of the ancient houses become reconciled. The 
third Thread, that of the Prince, here weaves, as a con- 
necting link, into the two principal Threads. 

Prince. Where be these enemies? Capulet! Montague! 
See, what a scourge is laid upon your hate. 
That heaven finds means to kill your joys with love! 

Capulet. O brother Montague, give me thy hand; 
This my daughter's jointure, for no more 
Can I demand. 

Montague. But I can give thee more: 
For I will raise her statue in pure gold ; 
That while Verona by that name is known, 



120 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

There shall no figure at such rate be set 
As that of true and faithful Juliet. 

Capulet. As rich shall Romeo by his lady lie; 
Poor sacrifices of our enmity ! 

In each of the Threads may be traced subordinate 
groups consisting of those who assist in carrying out the 
plans of the leaders. 

Movements. Through the first phase of action in 
Hamlet the King is continually trying by various means 
to find out to what extent Hamlet is dangerous. He 
determines that his safety lies in getting rid of his 
brother's son. He must now add a second crime to the 
first, but here, conscience not being entirely smothered, 
he pauses; he is confronted with his original deed. (Act 
III, Scene 2.) He discusses repentafice, of which he has 
a true conception. Genuine repentance would necessi- 
tate the giving up of all that he had gained by his deed — 
his crown, his queen and his ambition. He decides he 
cannot make the sacrifice. He can, then, only plunge 
deeper into crime, in order to make himself secure. This 
decision constitutes the climax for the King and of the 
play, for he is the doer of the deed. Just at this point 
Hamlet kills Polonius, and becomes a guilty individual 
himself. When he sees an opportunity to kill the King, 
he cannot do so, and thus he reaches his climax. This, 
then, constitutes the first Movement, or Guilt. 

The consequences of the King's decision, or the 
Retribution, now follow and y^ork on to the close, where 
in the final grand tragedy the guilty sufifer the penalty 
of their own deeds: this constitutes the second Move- 
ment. 



STRUCTURE 121 

Macbeth, until he reads his doom in the show of 
kings, is apparently dominated by the supernatural 
element in the form of the Weird Sisters. This super- 
natural world opens the play. Macbeth at once responds 
to their touch, their prophetic suggestions urge him on. 
We get the real spirit and motive of the play better by 
considering the Threads to consist of the natural and 
the supernatural worlds. They seem in conflict through- 
out. The first Movement, or Guilt, works up to a 
climax in Act iii, Scene 4, where Macbeth in despair 
determines again to consult the Weird Sisters. He is 
confronted by his deed and decides that, 

I am in blood 
Stepp'd in so far that, should I wade no more, 
Returning were as tedious as go o'er. 

***** 

We are yet but young in deed. 

He will consult the Weird Sisters. He falls under 
the spell of Hecate, the queen of the witches, and the 
second Movement is worked out. 

From these illustrations we may derive our defini- 
tions : 

Dramatic Threads are groups of forces or characters, 
working together through one phase of action to accom- 
plish a common purpose. 

Dramatic Movement is the dramatic conflict of the 
various Threads w^orking through one phase of action to 
a climax, where there is a change of thought or purpose. 

There may be two or more ]\Iovements with two or 
more Threads in each; the final ^Movement works out 



122 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

harmony in the final solution. In general, Shakespeare's 
tragedies require two Movements, Guilt and Retribution ; 
while the comedies move through three phases of action, 
requiring three Movements — i. Collision or Separation; 
2, Meditation; 3. Return or Solution. 

Mechanical Structure 

Framework. Besides this dramatic structure a play 
has what may be termed the framework of acts and 
scenes. The various steps in the development of the 
plot give rise to the division into acts. Every one of 
Shakespeare's plays contains five acts.* These have 
been described by the significant terms, Exposition, 
Growth, Climax, Consequence, and Close. 

Situation is given. 
Principal characters are introduced. 
Act I Key-notes of characters are given. We can 

Exposition usually determine their ofifice or dramatic purpose 
in the play. 

Groundwork of the plot is laid. 
Leading threads may be determined. 

Plot is more fully developed. 
Act II Characters are more fully developed. 

Growth Motives are revealed. 

New characters are often introduced. 

Turning point of the play. 

First movement is worked out in Tragedy or 
Tragi-Comedy. Plot works up to a crisis where 
the guilty individual must face his own deed. Re- 



•The division Into acts and scenes was hot made until after 
Shakespeare's death. The plays in the First Folio have five acts 
each. 







Play convicts Ki 



z 
o 

I- 
u 

< 






King nolconvinced Opheli 
thinks Hamlet insane 

Polonius attennpts to con 
vicl Hamlet by means 
I Ophelia, cause love 



Rosencrantz and Guilden- 
stem fail to convict Ham- 
let of insanity 



Hamlet decides on play to 
catch the conscience of 
the King 



■2.= - 



Hamlet's inaction 



Players am 



Hamlet baffles Rosencrant 
and Guildenstern 






Polonius tries to prove 
Hamlet insane by 
means of Ophelia. 



Fortmbras mediated 



Rosencrantz and Guil- 
denstern called by 
King to watch Hamtet 



Ophelia's evidence^ 



01 ° » 



Hamlet will put an anlic 
disposition on 

Ghost reveals the deed 
Charges Hamlet to revenge 



Hamlet sees Ghos 



Ophelia's relations to Ham- 
III let. Laertes returns to 

France. 



Hamlet informed of Ghost. 



Voltimand and Cornelii 
sent to Norway 



King faces his deed He 
, repent King's 
climax Will send Hamlet 
to England Hamlet will 
not kill King Hamlet's 
climax 

Hamlet kills Polonius Be- 
comes guilty individual 
Makes Queen face her 
deed Queen will not re- 
pent Climax 
Ghost appears 



Queen informs King 
death of Polonius 



3 ^ S-'^a 



Hamlet outwits Rosen- I 
crantz and Guildenstern. 1 '' 



King decides to send Ham- 
'et to England with hie m 



S 3 



m 



Fortinbras goes to regain 
patch of ground fronn 
Polacks. 

Hamlet's irresolution 



Ophelia insane. 
Laertes returns in arms. 
Witnesses her condition 



Hamlet's letter of expla 
tion to Horatio 



Hamlet's letter to King an- 
nouncing his return to 
England 

King and Laertes plan to 
kill Hamlet. 

Ophelia drowned 






JD 

C 
m 
2 
o 

1 ^ 

\^ 

H 



Grave-digger's scene 

Hamlet and Horatio appear 

Ophelia's funeral 



Hamlet justifies hii 
Horatio 



;lf to 






Combat with foils between 
Hamlet and Laertes 
Laertes' foil poisoned 
Laertes stabs Hamlet- 
Hamlet stabs Laertes with 
Laertes' foil Queen 
drinks poisoned cup and 
dies Laertes exposes 
plot Hamlet stabs King 
King dies Laertes dies 
Hamlet dies Fortinbras 
made King 



■J) 

n 

5 

m 



V 



Harmony in the Ethical World restored through the destruction of all the discordant element.s, and to 
the Kingdom of Denmark through Fortinbras, the mediated mdividual 



MECHANICAL STRUCTURE 123 

Act III pcntance is offered. If he repent, the seeming 
Climax Tragedy is turned to a Comedy. Example— 
Winter's Tale, Act in. Scene 3: Repentance of 
Leontes. If he does not repent, he must go on to 
the bitter end and the play is a Tragedy. This 
ends the first movement. 

This act works out the consequences of the re- 
sults of the decision in Act iii. 
Act IV New characters may be introduced to work out 

Consequences the second movement. In Hamlet Laertes takes 
the place of Polonius. In Tragedy the guilty doer 
of the deed plunges deeper and deeper into crime. 

The plot works to the final close: justice pre- 

Act V vails, the discordant element is destroyed ; harmony 

Qose is restored either through the destruction of the 

individual, as in Tragedy, or through conformity 

to the laws of the Ethical World, as in Comedy. 

Scenes. Changes of place naturally divide the acts 
into scenes. Originally, in some of Shakespeare's earliest 
plays, there were no scenes, doubtless because of the 
barrenness of the stage. As stage scenery was intro- 
duced, the plays were recast and arranged in scenes. In 
a few instances the arrangement of scenes in the acts 
dififers in different editions. In Hamlet Hudson places 
seven scenes in Act iii and four in Act iv, while Rolfc 
puts four in Act iii and seven in Act iv. We prefer the 
latter arrangement, as the first JMovement evidently 
closes with the closet scene. 

A graphic illustration of the plot brings it out vividly. 
One of Hamlet is here presented. 



124 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Dramatic Classification 

Shakespeare's dramas are frequently classified 
chronologically, thereby showing his mental growth and 
why some of his plays are so much deeper and more 
perfect than others. Dowden's classification has pre- 
viously been given/'^ Since we are studying these plays 
from a dramatic standpoint, we shall follow Snider's 
classification, based upon the classes and form of the 
drama. 

The drama proper portrays life ; it shows man work- 
ing out his own destiny according to the divine decree. 
It must be universal; and while incidentally it must be 
given time and place, it cannot be hampered by time and 
place, neither can it be limited by historical fact. While 
the life of nations offers a tempting field for the drama- 
tist, it by no means satisfies the province of the drama. 
We have seen that for the basis of his plots Shakespeare 
selects either some old legend or romance or some story 
from history ; hence his plays naturally fall under the 
general heads of Legendary or Romantic, and His- 
torical. Omitting Pericles, the authenticity of which is 
so generally questioned, there are twenty-one Legendary 
and fifteen Historical plays. 

Legendary. The Legendary plays are based chiefly 
upon legend ; still, legend is frequently so blended with 
historical fact that the form of the play and the manner 
of treatment must to some extent determine its place. 
Macbeth has a partial basis of history, but the manner 
of treatment places it with the Legendary plays. As 

*Pp. 68, 69. 



DRAMATIC CLASSIFICATION 125 

the Legendary is to portray the life of man, it is essen- 
tially domestic, and in general the collision is primarily 
in the Family, with the State in the background. In 
Hamlet one might at first question this point, since the 
murdered man was not only husband and father but 
king, but Hamlet himself treats the collision as domestic. 
He is trying to revenge the death of his father, rather 
than the death of the King of Denmark. He constantly 
grieves over the conduct of Gertrude because she is a 
woman and his mother, not because she is Queen of 
Denmark. 

The Legendary drama is not limited by time and has 
a tendency to complete itself in a single play. The 
termination is quite definite : the individual works out 
the result of his own deed, and in the end perishes, or is 
saved through mediation, and the play has either a tragic 
ending or a happy one. 

Historical. "The Historical drama is the drama of 
nationality : it deals with the institutions of the State ; 
and for its material looks to the records of the nation 
and to the deeds of the national heroes ; hence the 
emotion to which it appeals is patriotism." The His- 
torical drama then, is based upon historical fact. The 
collision is in the State, with the Family in the back- 
ground. The drama is necessarily limited by time and 
place, and only as it manifests the World Spirit can it 
be considered universal. As it deals with the life of the 
State, the complete drama may require more than a 
single play ; the Lancastrian and Yorkian tetralogies 
require a consecutive series. Again, the termination is 



126 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

often double, Tragedy and Comedy combined ; one party 
fails, the other succeeds. 

Since the law of history does not always coincide 
with the law of the drama, we must expect the structure 
of the Historical drama to be somewhat looser than that 
of the Legendary drama ; however, since there is always 
conflict, threads can be readily traced, and usually a 
little study will reveal the movements, although the 
climax is not always quite so evident. In King John we 
readily trace the English thread and the French thread. 
In the first movement the conflict is external ; England 
is victorious over France. In Arthur in England John 
sees a foe to his crown, and the struggle is now internal ; 
the m.otive changes and the second movement begins. 
In Julius Ccesar the first movement shows the internal 
conflict in Rome and the struggle against the man Caesar. 
The man out of the way, in the second movement the 
conflict is external and against the spirit of Caesar. Just 
before he falls on his sword Brutus exclaims; 

O Julius Caesar, thou art mighty yet : 

Thy spirit walks abroad and turns our swords 

In our own proper entrails. 

The Legendary and Historical are so closely related 
that there may be a difference of opinion as to exactly 
where the line is to be drawn. The old Roman story of 
Coriolanus is probably a myth, but the theme of the 
drama is political and represents an epoch of Roman 
history, and is treated in a political way. It is readily 
seen that the Family is sacrificed for the State. Snider 
says: "The chief characteristic of the Historical drama 



DRAMATIC CLASSIFICATION 127 

^s that it rises above the mere individual and shows the 
guilt and punishment of whole nations and whole epochs, 
thus manifesting how the deed in history returns to the 
land with a whip of scorpions, even after the lapse of 
generations." 

Tragedy and Comedy. The difference between 
Legendary and Historical dramas shows that it is the 
Legendary w^hich gives rise to true Tragedy and 
Comedy. According to the law of the Ethical World, 
which is also the law of the drama, discord must be 
destroyed and harmony restored. This law may be 
fulfilled in either of two ways. If the motive of the foul 
deed so takes possession of the guilty doer that he pur- 
sues his purpose to the bitter end, that end must bring 
death to him. Nemesis follows him, his deed must 
return upon his head, and the play becomes Tragedy. 
If, however, wdien brought face to face w^ith his deed, he 
sees it in all its enormity and repents, he need not perish ; 
harmony is restored without the necessity of the death 
of the individual ; the discordant principle is destroyed 
while the individual is saved, and the play turns to 
Comedy. Hence we see that the principle of Comedv is 
mediation, which implies salvation. This principle con- 
stitutes the real difference betw^een Tragedy and true 
Comedy. "The best thought of the modern world is 
salvation which springs from the mediatorial spirit." 
Comedy, then, in a way, may be as serious as Tragedy, 
and the term must not be interpreted as s^non^nious 
with comical in its limited sense of "funny"; farcical it 
may be, but farce is only a light phase of Comedy. 



128 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Conflict Double. In both Tragedy and Comedy the 
conflict is double, internal as well as external. In the 
internal conflict, when the individual passes through that 
"sorrow of the soul" resulting in true repentance which 
drives him to forsake sin and rise from the conflict 
glorified, we have Comedy. 

Hamlet says to Horatio: 

Thou hast been 
As one, in suffering all, that suffers nothing; 
A man that fortune's buffets and rewards 
Hath ta'en with equal thanks — Hamlet, Hi, 2. 

a man who has fought the battles of life and has come 
out triumphant over all — in short a perfect, mediated 
character, man redeemed. 

When King Claudius is passing through this internal 
conflict, he discusses repentance and thoroughly compre- 
hends what it signifies when he says: 

Forgive me my foul murder? 
That cannot be, as I am still possessed 
Of those effects for which I did the murder, 
My crown, mine own ambition, and my queen. 

May one be pardoned and still retain th' offence? 

* * * 

Try what repentance £an : what can it not ? 
Yet what can it when one cannot repent? 

Hamlet, Hi, 3. 

And so he moves on to death. Had the King repented 
and made restoration, the play would have turned to 
Comedy. 

Three Phases of Comedy. This serious phase of 
Comedy portrays harmony disturbed by foul deeds, but 



DRAMATIC CLASSIFICATION 129 

restored through the struggle which ends in repentance 
and forgiveness. There is a second phase, which does 
not imply crime; harmony may be disturbed through 
caprice or folly which may be disciplined out of a man, 
harmony thus being restored. In All's Well Bertram 
is disciplined out of his caprice and the family relation 
is re-established. A third phase of Comedy shows the 
individual as the victim of blunder or misunderstanding, 
and harmony is restored by having the ethical atmos- 
phere cleared of the confusion arising therefrom, as in 
the Comedy of Errors, where all the trouble arises 
through mistaken identity. Of course the situations are 
comical in the extreme ; we can say that this phase gives 
rise to the modern farce, wdiere comedy becomes indeed 
''comic'' in the commonly accepted sense of the word. 
In all cases harmony is restored without the destruction 
of the individual. 

Character and Situation. According to the basis of 
the action, we have Comedy of Character and Comedy 
of Situation ; the first is subjective, having its origin in 
the mind ; the second is objective, having its origin in 
external conditions or situations. (See page 211.) The 
audience is supposed to understand the situations, while 
the individual may or may not understand them ; the 
voluntary individual does understand them and carries 
his part through, joining the audience in the laugh. It 
is readily seen that Comedy of Situation requires no 
really strong characters ; we must look elsewhere for 
character study. 

Comic Action or Structure. As in Tragedy, so in 



130 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Comedy there is collision or conflict, and the action is 
carried on by means of threads and movements. The 
comic individual and his assistants form one thread ; his 
opponents usually group about a central figure and form 
another thread. Always two and sometimes more threads 
may be traced. These threads m.ove through one phase 
of action, the collision, which constitutes the first move- 
ment. Mediation now steps in and a transition to 
another phase of action takes place, and we have a 
second movement. Mediation accomplished, we meet its 
results worked out in a third movement or solution, in 
which all discordant elements disappear and harmony is 
restored; broken families are restored as in Comedy of 
Errors; delusions vanish, as in Midsummer Night's 
Dream; blunders and errors are rectified, as in Winter s 
Tale. In some instances all of these points combine in 
one play. We may trace Nemesis in Comedy as well as 
in Tragedy, where we also see both punishments and 
rewards. The outcome of Comedy is "the destruction 
not of the individual, but of his deceptions, and the 
dissolution of his whims and absurdities." 

Real and Ideal Both Tragedy and Comedy contain 
natural or real elements brought into play with the 
supernatural or ideal elements ; this gives rise to the 
division of the play into Real and Ideal. 

(a) Tragedy. 

When the motives and actions are confined to the 
natural or real world, as in Romeo and Juliet, we have 
Real Tragedy. 

"When Tragedy seeks the realm of the supernatural 



DRAMATIC CLASSIFICATION 131 

in order to express and develop the motives of the tragic 
individual we term the play Ideal." The Ghost urges 
Hamlet to action and pushes him on. Macbeth is con- 
stantly under the spell of the Weird Sisters. 

(b) Comedy. 

In Comedy mediation may be confined to the real or 
natural world, as when Portia in the Merchant of Venice 
saves Antonio in the realm of real life where the conflict 
takes place ; while in As You Like It, in the ideal realm 
of the Forest of Arden, all discordant elements disap- 
pear, all become reconciled and harmony is restored, 
then all return to the real or institutional world. 

Pure and Tragi-Conicdy. Comedy of Situation and 
Comedy of Character give rise to Pure Comedy and 
Tragi-Comedy. Sometimes the humorous or comic pre- 
vails altogether ; the individual through accident, caprice 
or folly becomes entangled in a maze of difficult or 
ridiculous situations, without any crime or real guilt ; 
this gives rise to Pure Comedy. When a dark thread of 
guilt runs through the first movement, but the mind and 
the hand of the prospective criminal are arrested, media- 
tion enters, and that which at the outset promised 
Tragedy is converted into Comedy. Sometimes that 
which began in folly deepens to crime and the outlook 
is tragic, mediation steps in and saves the individual ; 
thus we have Tragi-Comedy. 

The climax shows whether the guilty doer of the 
deed will repent and determines the play to be Tragedy 
or Tragi-Comedy. The middle movement shows whether 
mediation takes place in the Real or in the Ideal realm, 



132 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



and determines the Comedy to be Real or Ideal; the 
threads show whether it is Pure or Tragi-Comedy ; one 
dark thread of guilt throws the play out of the realm of 
Pure Comedy. This classification may be tabulated as 
follows : 



Legendary 



Tragedy 



Comedy 



Real 
Ideal 

r Real 
I Ideal 



Pure 

Tragi-Comedy 
Pure 
Tragi-Comedy 



Order of Historical Plays. Shakespeare did not 
write his historical plays in chronological order ; he most 
naturally began with an epoch in the life of his own 
nation. Catching the World Spirit, he went back in 
time into the world's history, and the Roman plays are 
the result. We see that he recognized the continuity of 
history and we classify the historical plays in chrono- 
logical order. 

At first it seems a little difficult to know just where 
to place Troilus and Cressida. The basis of the drama 
is the Trojan War, and Homer's story is legend. Some 
would make Homer himself a myth, but how feeble 
would be our understanding of the Grecian heart and 
mind of the heroic age without the Homeric stories ! In 
them we feel the. pulse of early Greek life and history, 
and thus Snider very appropriately considers this play 
as the connecting link between the Legendary and His- 
torical plays. Then follows the Roman series in their 
order. 



DRAMATIC CLASSIFICATION 133 

The proper place for Titus Androniciis has also been 
questioned. Indeed, some consider the authorship so 
very doubtful that they would throw the play out alto- 
gether. Accepting it as Shakespeare's work, where shall 
we place it ? Snider says : 

Its historical setting is manifest, — the action occurs in an his- 
torical state, in an historical period, amid a great historical con- 
flict ; yet the history as such seems to be wholly legendary. But 
the political element equals, if it does not overtop, the domestic 
element ; that is the essential test of an historical play. After all 
that may be said against it, the play of Titus Andronicus, with 
its accumulated horrors, gives a true reflex idea of the end of 
Roman History.* 

Ulrici devotes twenty pages to the discussion of the 
authenticity of Pericles, and still one is left with a feel- 
ing of doubt as to whether Shakespeare's work on the 
play was more than a slight retouching of an old drama. 
Coleridge's notes on the different plays do not include 
Pericles. Snider considers the evidence of Shakespeare's 
work so doubtful that he rejects the play. 

With these explanations we give Snider's classifica- 
tion and leave the student to apply the principles and 
determine for himself whether they justify this arrange- 
ment. 



♦Histories, pp. 270 and 271. 



134 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Sistider's Classification 
36 plays 



Legendarj 
21 ^ 



Tragedy 



Comedy 
15 



Real 

4 



Ideal 
2 



Real 

7 



Ideal 

8 



Macbeth 
Hamlet 



Timon of Athens < Collision ] Property 
^"^ Juner'^ ] Collision j Family ; lovers 
Othello ] Collision ll^f'^^i,^'''^^''^ 

SC Family ; parent 
Collision < and child ; sis- 
( ter against sister 
Supernatural J Weird Sisters 

Element | start action 
Supernatural j Ghost starts 
Element I action 



Comedy of Errors 
Taming of the Shrew 
Twelfth Night 
Merry Wives of Windsor 
Much Ado About Nothing 
All's Well that Ends Well 
Merchant of Venice 
f Love's Labour's Lost 
i Two Gentlemen of Verona 
I As You Like It 
[ Midsummer Night's Dream 
f Measure for Measure 
Winter's Tale 



Pure 
4 

Tragi- 
comedy 
3 

Pure 
4 

Tragi- 
comedy 
4 



Cymbeline 



t The Tempest 



Historical 
15 



Greek 
1 



Roman 



Trollus 



i Transition to Historical Drama 
( Cressida 

f Prologue Coriolanus 

^TrflPifw' From Republic j Julius Caesar 
^ 4^ M to Empire | Antony and Cleopatra 
t Epilogue Titus Andronicus 

f Prologue King John 

( Richard II 
English I Lancastrian Tetralogy < Henry IV 2 parts 

(Mediated) i ( Henry V 

1« I Yorkian Tetralogy ] gS/lII ^^'*' 
L Epilogue Henry VIII 



Ill 

THE STUDY 

OF 

SHAKESPEARE 



Ill 

THE STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE 

Suggestions 

One may enjoy a picture without knowing the 
principles of art, or a selection from Wagner without 
understanding the principles of music, but the true 
appreciation which gives a joy at times rising to ecstasy 
is granted only to those who understand the principles 
upon which the art is based, that which makes the won- 
derful production possible. 

So one may enjoy Shakespeare in a w^ay without 
knowing the principles of dramatic art, by simply giving 
his plays a casual reading ; but the wonders of the great 
dramatist are comprehensible only to the mind of him 
who is interested enough to give the individual plavs a 
careful and thorough study. 

Shakespeare's Versatility. Lawyers read Shakespeare 
for law, physicians for medical science, statesmen for 
lessons in statesmanship ; here theologians may find the 
theory of salvation, rhetoricians may learn how to write, 
'orators may study their art, society may find its standard 
of conduct, women may find the standard of true wife- 
hood and womanhood. To know Shakespeare is to 
know man, to know society in all its grades and phases 
— in fact to know the world. Then is it not worth while 
to make a careful study of this Prince of Authors? 

137 



138 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

To beginners we would suggest, begin by reading 
some of the lighter comedies, as Love's Labour's Lost, 
or As You Like It, simply to become interested in Shake- 
speare and to familiarize yourself with his style. If you 
can appreciate the play better by reading the story first 
and learning something of the characters, by all means 
do so. Lamb's Tales from Shakespeare tell the stories 
of the legendary plays. 

If you would know Shakespeare even a little, make 
a thorough study of a few of the. stronger dramas, as 
The Merchant of Venice, Julius Cccsar, and Hamlet. 
Once having made the study, you can get very much 
more out of other plays by a mere reading. Whether 
or not you pursue this more thorough study further will 
depend largely upon how greatly interested you have 
become in the work, and somewhat upon the time which 
you have at your disposal. Professor William Taylor 
Thom says: ''For a class of boys or girls, I hold that 
the most effectual and rapid and profitable method of 
studying Shakespeare is for them to learn one play as 
thoroughly as their teacher can make them do it. Then 
they can read other plays with a profit and a pleasure 
unknown and unknowable without such a previous drill 
and study." 

Some suggestions may be given to aid in the study of 
an individual play, but even these must be modified 
somewhat to suit different plays, and the different classes 
of plays (Tragedy, Comedy, Historical). Also, the 
dramas of Shakespeare's early years are as a whole much 
looser in structure than those of his riper years. In this 
outline of study we make no attempt to construct a 



SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 139 

Procrustean bed to which every play must be fitted ; our 
purpose is to make suggestions which may be helpful to 
pupils, and to teachers whose time is overcrowded, or to 
those studying without a teacher. 

THE STUDY OF AN INDIVIDUAL PLAY 

I Provide yourself with a notebook and blank-book 
for written analysis outline. 

II Read the play through carefully for pleasure, and 
to learn the story, cast of characters, and situations. 

III Classify the play, in each case giving the rea- 
sons for your classification. Your first reading doubtless 
will enable you to do this. 

l\ A diagram showing the entrance and exits of 
the characters is a great aid in gaining a grasp of the 
entire play ; it should be made in full at the beginning 
of the study, the names entered as the characters appear 
in the play, and followed out. 

To illustrate, the diagram on page 182 carries the 
characters in The Merchant of Venice through two acts. 
The vertical columns show the characters in each scene ; 
the horizontal lines trace them through the entire play. 
The lines by their length indicate approximately the 
time each character is in the scene. 

We do not advise entering the names in the diagram 
until the second reading. 

I Uust ration — Merchant of Venice. 

1 Legendary. (State why.) 

2 Comedy. (State why.) 

3 Real. (State why.) 



140 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



4 Tragi-comedy. (State why.) 

5 State the theme of the play. 

6 Give the legendary sources of plot. 

7 Scenes of action. (Where do the principal scenes of action 
take place?) 

8 Class of society chiefly involved? 

9 Time, or probable time? 

lo Basis of the play — Bassanio's indebtedness. 



11. 
Action 



Conflict 

Media- 
torial 
Action 

Religious 
Conflict 



Ethical 
Objective 



j Between the right of property and 
( the existence of the individual. 
Between Shylock and Antonio : 
Antonio's bond to the Jew. 
Antonio saved by Portia, the representative 
of the family. Family established by An- 
tonio's money. 

Conflict between the practical Jewish world 
and the practical Christian world of the 
time. 



£.2 

3 OB 






Oj > 

(H O 

OS 



pirgt I Antonio's 

Thread: i strand 

1. Portia 

Second 
Thread : 

cSmsIon 1 2- Jessica. 



Antonio : Bassanio. 
Gratiano ; Salarino ; Salanio. 
Leonardo. 
J a Shylock. 
Tubal. 

Portia; Bassanio; Antonio (indirectly). 
Prince of Morocco. 
Prince of Arragon. 
Xerissa. 

a Jessica ; Lorenzo. 

h Lauucelot. 

c Gratiano ; Masquers, etc. 

a Shylock. 

& Tubal. 



1 6 
(a 
) b 



r Christian 
I strand 

I Jewish 
L strand 



fe Third 
I Thread : 
Religious 



I Conflict j Jewish 
L L strand 



Nerissa j a Xerissa ; Gratiano. 

r [a Antonio; Bassanio. 

I Christian J b Jessica ; Lorenzo. 
I strand 1 c Launcelot. 
i Id Old Gobbo. 

a Shylock. 

6 Tubal. 



Solution 



(To be tabulated by the student.) 



Second 
Movement : 
Mediation 

Third ( 

Movement: j No collision. (Group characters together.) 



SUGGESTIONS FOR STUDY 14i 

In tracing the characters in the various threads they 
are grouped according to their importance, as Group a. 
Group b, and so on. 

The plot may be traced through the various acts and 
scenes by the aid of a graphic ihustration. 

Make a time analysis if you can. 

Make a list of the characters, tracing the dramatic 
purpose or office of each in the play, as — Portia, 
mediator in the property conflict. In the family thread 
show the triumph of love as the basis of marriage over 
the claims of title or wealth. The play may then be 
followed out, each act by scenes, tracing the characters 
and their motives, their play upon each other, and so on, 
showing the inter-play of the incidents of the story with 
the incidents of the plot in the working out of the final 
result. It is very interesting to search for Biblical 
allusions. Note the use of music. Make a list of quota- 
tions on different topics. Write character sketches. The 
field is so rich that there is almost no limit to the lines 
of thought which may be worked out. 

STUDIES OF SPECIAL PLAYS 

In preparing these studies, it is presumed that if the 
plays here presented are studied in the high school, they 
will be taken in the order given, and that the pupils in 
the second and third years are prepared to discuss more 
thoroughly the principles and structure of the Drama 
and its different forms than are the first-year pupils. The 
text of Parts I and 11* should be thoroughly reviewed 
with the study of each play. 



"More especially Part II. 



142 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

We would again emphasize the advantage to be 
gained by the pupil in making a table of the entrance 
and exits of characters. By means of this table a char- 
acter can always be located in the play. 

The graphic illustration of plot enables one to get 
the structure of the play at a glance. 

Outline books may be made very attractive and inter- 
esting by putting in pictures illustrating the subject; 
these may often be found in old magazines. The beau- 
tiful Perry pictures and the Brown pictures are easily 
obtained — large sizes for a penny, small sizes for a 
half-penny each. 

Except in the case of The Merchant of Venice 
questions on the play by acts and scenes are not given 
because it is thought best to leave the matter in the 
hands of the teacher. By a little study of the questions 
given, the teacher will be able to trace them through the 
acts and scenes and assign them as a study for daily 
lessons. 

For the same reason only a limited number of 
schemes for outline books is presented. The questions 
on the various plays furnish abundant material, by way 
of suggestion, for as many different schemes as may be 
required for a large school. If other plays are studied, 
those given are suggestive of a line of procedure, 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 

Sidelights 
date of play and source of plot 

This play probably was written about 1596 or 1597. 
By this time Shakespeare had become a prosperous busi- 
ness man ; his mind was occupied with money affairs. 
He bought New Place in Stratford in 1597. The Mer- 
chant of Venice deals with the wealthy classes. Brandes 
suggests that the play was the natural product of the 
poet's trend of mind at that time. 

Shakespeare weaves his plot from two old, old 
stories. The story of the pound of flesh may be traced 
back to the dim past of the oriental myths. Coming 
into Europe, the laws of the Twelve Tables of Ancient 
Rome savorpf it: we are told that they gave the creditor 
the right to take payment in the flesh of the insolvent 
debtor, and in case there were several creditors, the flesh 
could be divided pro rata ; if one got more than his 
share he forfeited all. This exaction of payment in flesh 
was an ancient custom of other nations than the Romans. 

The casket story has been traced back to the Greek 
writings of a Syrian monk, about the year 800 A.D. It 
also had various literary wanderings, and probably 
Shakespeare was not the first to combine it with the 
bond story. Aside from these two stories, the play is 
enlivened by two episodes, the elopement of Jessica, nud 

143 



144 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

the ring episode ; these also were old ; but under the 
magic touch of the master-mind how skillfully all are 
woven together, and what a wonderful creation we have ! 

THEME 

The theme of the play is the relation of man to prop- 
erty ; this gives rise to the Property conflict. Money is 
the real basis of action; the drama hinges, as it were, 
upon Antonio's money. So long as he is considered 
solvent all goes well. When his argosies are believed 
to be lost, the dramatic action changes and works out 
the result of this supposed loss. 

The play deals with three typical forms of property 
in the possession of three leading characters, while a 
fourth character, Bassanio, is the spendthrift who cannot 
keep money at all, and has to depend upon borrowing 
from friends, which causes all the difficulty. 

Shylock's Wealth. Shylock's wealth consists of 
money and jewels — easily secreted, easily transported, 
insecure because it presents great temptations to the 
thief — money always at command to be loaned and 
reloaned, offering a temptation to take advantage of 
another's necessities ; jewels, which always have a high 
market price. This form of property typifies the miser 
who hoards for the sake of hoarding, who loves money 
for the sake of money, not for the comfort that it will 
buy, not for the sake of trade or commerce, nor for 
culture, not even for the happiness of the home. 

Antonio's Wealth. Antonio's wealth is invested in 
his argosies, subject to losses at sea from storms and 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 145 

from pirates ; he carries on trade with all nations and 
comes in touch with the whole commercial world. This 
form of property should typify breadth of mind and a 
spirit of generosity, as it does in Antonio's case. 

Portia's Wealth. Portia's wealth consists of landed 
estates and palaces, the inheritance of generations — not 
easily transported, not especially subject to loss. Thieves 
cannot rob her nor storms dispossess her to any appre- 
ciable extent. Wealth and culture form her natural 
atmosphere. She can dispense her ducats as lavishly as 
she chooses and feel no deprivation. This form of wealth 
typifies permanence, refinement, culture. 

Religious Conflict. A secondary theme is the relation 
of Judaism to Christianity ; of the Jew of that age to the 
Christian of that age. This gives rise to the Religious 
conflict. In this conflict Shylock is a type of Judaism 
under the old Mosaic law which demanded justice to the 
exact letter of the law, ''An eye for an eye, a tooth for a 
tooth."* Antonio is a type of Mediaeval Christianity, in 
which hatred of the Jew manifests itself in the spirit of 
persecution. Portia typifies the spirit of true Christian- 
ity — love, and justice tempered with mercy. f 

Love Theme. The theme of love hovers over the 
entire drama like an enveloping action : it relieves the 
strain of the tragic element, and sweetens and enlivens 
the entire play from its beginning to its end, where it 
closes in the very ecstasy of the unalloyed joy of perfect 
love. 



•Merchant of Venice, iv. 1. Exod., xxi, 24. Lev., xxlv, 20. 
t/&id., Iv, 1. Matt., V, 38, 39. 



146 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

As previously stated* love is the divinely ordered 
basis of the Family. The love theme in this play clearly 
shows the power of love over accident or chance, and 
over money, in the establishment of the Family. By her 
father's decree Portia is to be won by the mere hazard 
of the choice of the caskets ; this she keenly feels, but 
Nerissa cheers her by the assurance: "The lottery 
. . . will, no doubt, never be chosen by any rightly 
but one who you shall rightly love," and the sequel 
proves the truth of the prophecy, for love triumphs over 
chance. 

When Bassanio hears of the loss of Antonio's argo- 
sies, his speech to Portia clearly indicates that he feels 
he must now abandon his suit, but Portia assures him 
that the money shall be doubled, and again doubled, and 
then trebled. 

Before a friend of this description 
Shall lose a hair through Bassanio's fault. 
First go with me to church and call me wife, 
And then away to Venice to your friend. 

Portia's love will run no risk of separation or delay, 
and the institution of the Family is established. Gold 
becomes as light as a feather when thrown in the balance 
with true love, which thus shows its superiority over 
mere chance or m.oney as a basis for the Family. 

Theme Traced. Notwithstanding all of this promi- 
nence, from the dramatic standpoint love is reallv a 
minor theme. In the first place, by her father's decree 
Portia is to be won by the choice of the caskets, not by 



*See (a) The Family^ p. 108. 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 147 

actual love. Secondly, Bassanio has squandered bor- 
rowed money, and must devise some means of relief 
from pecuniary obligations. He says : 

'Tis not unknown to you, Antonio, 
How much I have disabled mine estate. 

My chief care 
Is to come fairly off from the great debts 
Wherein my time, something too prodigal, 
Hath left me gaged. To you, Antonio, 
I owe the most, in money and in love. 
And from your love I have a warranty 
To unburthen all my plots and purposes. 
How to get clear of all the debts I owe. 

* * * 

In Belmont is a lady richly left ; 

* * * 

And many Jasons come in quest of her. 

my Antonio, had I but the means 
To hold a rival place with one of them, 

1 have a mind presages me such thrift 
That I should questionless be fortunate. 

Evidently Bassanio's primary object in striving to win 
Portia is to secure the means with which to discharge his 
pecuniary obligations. He feels encouraged to make the 
efifort because he and she have incidentally met once (we 
have no reason to suppose more than once), when, he 
tells Antonio, 

from her eyes 
I did receive fair speechless messages. 
But 

The four winds blow in from every coast 
Renowned suitors. 

The Princes of the Earth come from all directions with 



148 STUDIES IN" SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

their magnificent retinues, to win the lovely lady ; for she 
is not only richly left but 

she is fair and, fairer than that word, 
Of wondrous virtues : 

* * * 

Her name is Portia; nothing undervalued 
To Cato's daughter, Brutus' Portia. 

It will take much money 

To hold a rival place with one of them. 

Bassanio is in dire need of the material wealth which a 
marriage with Portia will bring ; since in addition to 
this, if he win her, his life will be enriched by union with 
a wealth of character and love, what an unanswerable 
argument accompanies the request for a loan ! He is 
already heavily in debt to Antonio. If his friend will 
but provide him with the means to join the royal suitors 
for fair Portia's hand and heart, he feels confident of 
success, but if he does not win, Antonio will suffer no 
further loss ; 

That which I owe is lost; but if you please 
To shoot another arrow that self way 
Which you did shoot the first, I do not doubt, 
As I will watch the aim, or to find both 
Or bring your latter hazard back again, 
And thankfully rest debtor for the first. 

So Antonio will run no risk in making this loan, and if 
Bassanio's "plots and purposes how to get clear of all 
the debts" he owes succeed, as he has a mind they will, 
then he can pay all. Thus we see that while Bassanio 
wishes to borrow money to enable him to ply his suit 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 149 

for Portia, he desires to win Portia primarily to get 
money which will enable him to discharge his debts. 

Jessica is prompted to elope with Lorenzo quite as 
much to escape the tyranny of her father as for love. 
The love of Gratiano and Nerissa is an incident of story 
and not of plot. 

With what wonderful skill our artist weaves the cli- 
max of the threads of the charming love theme into that 
of the money theme, making one complete whole ! Bas- 
sanio wins his Portia; at the same time Gratiano and 
Nerissa pledge their troth. They have scarcely had time 
to announce their triumph of love when Salerio arrives 
from Venice, bringing a letter from Antonio which tells 
of his losses. Lorenzo and Jessica, who have made good 
their escape from Venice, with no intention of following 
Bassanio, appear at the same time. Lorenzo explains : 

Meeting with Salerio by the way, 
He did entreat me, past all saying nay, 
To come with him along. 

Salerio confirms Lorenzo's statement, saying, 

And I have reason for it. Signor Antonio 
Commends him to you. 

Thus we see the last of the three pairs of lovers brought 
to Portia's house by Antonio, who is the link uniting all 
of the various threads of the play, and upon whom the 
entire dramatic action depends. 

STRUCTURE 

Threads. As dramatic characters, the individuals ar- 
range themselves in groups or threads, working together 



150 STtlDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

to accomplish a common purpose* ; the endeavor to trace 
a line of thought and action running through a move- 
ment or phase of action in a play throws a flood of Hght 
upon its development which more than repays the effort. 
The principal characters arrange themselves differ- 
ently, according to the view-point which we take of 
them ; thus : 

Importance in Story: Bassanio, Antonio, Shylock, Portia. 

Dramatic Importance: Antonio, Shylock, Portia, Bassanio. 

Strength of Character: Shylock, Portia, Antonio, Bassanio. 

Beauty of Character: Portia, Antonio, Bassanio, Shylock. 

Portia serves the dramatic purpose of mediator, and 
forms the connecting link between the business world 
and the family. Jessica and Launcelot seem to form 
the connecting link between the Jewish religion and the 
Christian, by deserting the one for the other. 

Movements. In the first movement all seems to go 
well. Bassanio, with no money to enable him to ply his 
suit of love at Belmont, feels no hesitancy in applying 
to his friend Antonio, to whom he is already greatly in- 
debted. From Shylock the money is obtained on the 
strength of Antonio's bond ; here the Religious conflict 
first manifests itself. Bassanio gains his bride through 
the right choice of caskets. All is dependent, primarily, 
on the wealth of Antonio's argosies at sea ; the news of 
Antonio's loss changes the whole action of the play. The 
first movement depends upon the existence of Antonio's 



*See "Threads," pp. 117, 121. 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 151 

property; hence the supposed loss of the argosies con- 
stitutes the cHmax. 

The second movement, Mediation, depends upon the 
supposed loss of Antonio's property. Here Portia, as 
mediator, saves the Hfe of Antonio, thereby preventing 
the play from becoming Tragedy. Thus in the Property 
conflict the life of man triumphs over property: Shy- 
lock is compelled to leave his wealth to Jessica in the 
end. In the Religious conflict he is forced to become a 
Christian, and Christianity triumphs. Here Shylock, the 
only discordant element in the play, drops out. 

The third movement, the Solution, deals only with 
the theme of love. All meet in Portia's house in Bel- 
mont, where the various tricks which have caused mo- 
mentary discords are exposed, identities are revealed, 
and all revel in the harmonious atmosphere of moon- 
shine, music and love. 

Comedy and Nemesis. It will readily be seen that 
in the Property conflict the play is Comedy, since not 
only the individual is saved, but the property also. In 
the Religious conflict it is Comedy for Christianity, since 
Shylock is compelled to become a Christian. In the Love 
conflict the comedy is self-evident. Nemesis follows 
Shylock, but not to the extent of taking his life. His 
deeds return upon his own head ; his life is spared 
through enforced surrender of his property at his death, 
and the renouncement of his religion. However much 
we may despise his spirit of revenge and his love of 
his ducats, which exceeds his love for his daughter, we 
cannot but feel that his end is pathetic. 



132 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE 

First Movement — Collision 

In the action of the play the religious conflict is so 
closely interwoven with the Property conflict that these 
two threads may almost be traced together. Each is 
composed of two strands or threads of its own, in colli- 
sion — Antonio and Shylock in conflict. 

Antonio's Thread. In the first movement Antonio 
and Bassanio are so intimately concerned that they form 
a group by themselves, group a* Salanio, Salarino and 
Gratiano, as friends of Antonio and Bassanio, assist in 
carrying on their side of the action, and form a secon- 
dary group, group b; while Leonardo as Bassanio's 
servant performs a still more inferior part and may be 
designated as c. 

In the movement of the Property conflict, and also of 
the Religious conflict, these groups of characters work 
together to accomplish a common purpose, and constitute 
Antonio's strand or thread. 

Shylock's Thread. Throughout the entire play, op- 
posed to Antonio stands Shylock almost alone ; there is 
no one to associate with him in group a. Tubal, as a 
friend, aids incidentally, first as one upon whom Shylock 
can call for ready money, and later in the search for the 
lost ducats and the runaway daughter. He also stands 
alone, group h. 

Religions Conflict. A secondary manifestation of the 
Religious conflict weaves in with the love thread in 



■See diagrams, p. 141. 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 163 

the elopement of Jessica with Lorenzo, and Launcelot's 
desertion. We first find Jessica as daughter and Launce- 
lot as servant in Shylock's home, but in a state of rebel- 
Hon, both planning to make their escape from the Jew, 
whom they simultaneously desert for the Christian. This 
places them in the Christian strand or thread of the Re- 
ligious conflict, together wath Lorenzo, Jessica's Chris- 
tian lover, with whom she elopes. They may be ar- 
ranged, after Antonio and Bassanio, as group c, Jessica, 
Lorenzo; d, Launcelot; e, Old Gobbo, who performs a 
very incidental part. 

Love Thread. In the love thread the collision seems 
to be between mere chance, rank, money and parental 
authority and love as the basis of the Family, but love 
triumphs over all. Portia is actuated only by love 
throughout the entire play : every breath that she draws 
is a breath of love ; every move that she makes is 
prompted by love. She would be true to parental author- 
ity. She surrounds Bassanio with a very halo of love, 
his choice falls upon the casket containing her portrait, 
and love triumphs over chance without the necessity of 
sacrificing parental authority. The wealth and rank erf 
the princes of the earth are nothing to Portia ; her love 
for Bassanio, the penniless lord, with no distinction but 
his too good-natured prodigality, outweighs all. 

In this most important strand of the love thread, 
Portia leads with Bassanio in group a; the Princes of 
IMorocco and Arragon, h: Nerissa, c. Bassanio seems 
to form a link betw^een the Property collision and the 
Love collision, since his first object in seeking Portia is 
money, but as soon as their thoughts are turned toward 



154 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

each other the Httle spark of admiration implanted long 
ago is fanned into a flame of intense love on the part of 
both. 

In what may be termed a religious strand of the love 
conflict Jessica and Lorenzo, working together to estab- 
lish the Family upon the basis of love in opposition to 
parental authority, inherited religion and money, from 
group a of the Christian strand ; Launcelot assisting, 
group b; with the masquers, Gratiano and others, group 
c. Opposed to them, Shylock, a, assisted by Tubal, b, 
constitute the Jewish strand. 

The third strand consists simply of the little love 
episode of Gratiano and Nerissa, which flows on without 
a ripple, showing that it is possible for the course of true 
love to run smooth. It seems to be woven in to enliven 
the movement of the play, and as a support to Portia in 
carrying out her plans. 

In the Religious conflict Antonio and Shylock stand 
out in bold relief, practically alone, pitted against each 
other to fight out the ancient grudge.* 

Second Movement — Mediation 

When all are happy in the turn aflfairs have taken 
in Portia's home, news comes of the loss of Antonio's 
argosies : the whole action of the play changes and the 
second movement. Mediation, sets in. The love question 
being settled by the three marriages, the action is left 
free to work out the Property conflict, strengthened by 
the Religious conflict. 



*For minor groups see diagrams, p. 141. 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 155 

Property Thread. The action of this movement is 
confined to the courtroom. The property thread shows 
three strands or threads of its own. Shylock carries his 
own thread, absolutely unsupported. Antonio, standing 
alone as the defendant in the case, simply acquiesces in 
the judgment of the court. In the mediatorial strand 
Portia leads, assisted by the Duke, forming group a; 
Nerissa, Bassanio, Gratiano form group b; Salanio, Sa- 
larino and others, group c. 

Third Movement — The Solution. 

This movement is confined to Act v. All come to- 
gether at last in Portia's home ; here there is no colli- 
sion — simply a clearing of the atmosphere by little play- 
ful intrigues, ending in unalloyed love. The three love 
strands, formed by Portia and Bassanio, Jessica and 
Lorenzo, Nerissa and Gratiano, weave together in the 
action with Antonio as a link. He says : 

I am the unhappy subject of these quarrels. 
* * * 

Sweet lady, you have given me life and living; 
For here I read* for certain that my ships 
Are safely come to road. 

The life is saved ; the property is saved ; the lovers 
are all happy, and the Comedy is evident. 

SOME LEGAL ASPECTS 

Much criticism has been passed upon the method of 
conductim-- the trial in Tlic Merchant of Venice; claim 



In a letter given him by Portia. 



156 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

has been made that it conforms to no court practice, and 
that such violation of court procedure, though it may be 
only for dramatic effect, is scarcely excusable, even in 
Shakespeare. 

Shakespeariana for January, 1893, contains a very 
interesting experience of Mr. John T. Doyle, which 
throws new light on this point. It was published at the 
request of Mr. Lawrence Barrett, who considered it of 
too great value to be lost. It first appeared in the Over- 
land Monthly for July, 1886. Mr. Furness has repro- 
duced it in his Variorum edition.* 

The chief criticisms passed upon the trial in The 
Merchant of Venice are that no jury is impaneled and 
that no witnesses are called. The presiding Duke is 
fully informed of all of the facts in the case before 
hand, and has sent them to Bellario of Padua, and called 
upon him to come and render judgment — certainly very 
strange proceedings according to our modern courts of 
justice. 

Mr. Doyle states that in 185 1- 1852 he spent several 
months in Nicaragua, probably at that time the least 
known and least frequented of the Spanish-American 
states, quite cut off from the rest of the world, it doubt- 
less kept up the old Spanish court practices. The affairs 
of his company were in a much entangled condition, and 
he soon found himself involved in half a dozen lawsuits. 
One day in Grenada a dapper little man accosted him on 
the street, saying, "The Alcalde sends for you" ; he paid 
little attention, when a bystander told him that he had 
received a legal summons to court, and that he would 



See The Merchant of Venice, p. 417. 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 157 

better go at once, which he did. When he arrived at 
court, the Alcalde had the plaintiff summoned, who made 
his charges against the company, and the court proceed- 
ings were almost identical with the case of Shylock, even 
from the summons on the street to the collection of the 
fee. The decision was in Mr. Doyle's favor. Soon after, 
he received an ''intimation" that Don Buenaventura (the 
Dr. Bellario in the case) expected a "gratification" of 
probably two hundred dollars ; this was simply the fee, 
which in practice was always collected from the winner 
in the case. His other cases proceeded in the same 
manner. 

Mr. Doyle says that after this experience he reread 
the case of Shylock and concluded that Shakespeare was 
perfectly familiar with old Spanish court customs, and 
that those of Venice were probably the same, as they 
came originally from the same source. At least it was 
no strain of poetic license to transfer Spanish customs 
to Venice for dramatic eft'ect. Mr. Doyle further states 
that the disposition of Shylock's estate was still a stum- 
bling block to him, but that later he witnessed a case in 
a Mexican court which was settled in a manner quite 
like that of Shylock, and he then felt that Shakespeare 
knew perfectly well what he was about, and that we need 
no longer feel that in this case he shows a lack of knowl- 
edge of correct legal proceedings. 

THE BIBLE IN THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 

Find in the play passages corresponding to the fol- 
lowing Biblical quotations and references, or which were 
evidently suggested by a knowledge of the Bible : 



158 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Act I, Scene i. ' 

1 Whosoever will save his life shall lose it. 

Luke ix. 24. (Matt. x. 39.) 

2 Whosoever is angry with his brother without a cause shall 
be in danger of the judgment: and whoever shall say to his 
brother, Raca [vain fellow], shall be in danger of the council : 
but whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell 
fire. Matt. v. 22. 

3 See story of Jonathan shooting the arrows. 

/ Sam. XX. 18-22; 35-38. 

Scene 3. 

4 And forthwith Jesus gave them leave. And the unclean 
spirits went out, and entered unto the swine. 

Mark V. 13. (Luke viii. 33.) 

5 Abraham begat Isaac ; and Isaac begat Jacob. Matt. i. 2. 
For the mother's trick to secure first place for her favorite 

son, and this son's trick to get the best of the bargain with his 
uncle Laban see Gen. xxvii; Gen. xxx. 25-43. 

6 Then the devil . . . saith ... It is written. He 
shall give his angels charge concerning thee. 

Matt. iv. 5, 6. (Ps. xci. 11, 12.) 

7 Ye make clean the outside of the cup and of the platter, but 
within they are full of extortion and excess. 

Matt, xxiii. 25. (Luke xi. 39.) 

8 For calling names, see again Matt. v. 22. 

9 If a man say, I love God, and hateth his brother, he is a 
liar. I John iv. 20. 

10 Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye 
even so to them. Matt. vii. 12. (Luke vi. 31.) 

Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. Lev. xix. 18. 

Act II, Scene 2. 

11 How to perform that which is good I find not. For the 
good that I would I do not. . . . When I would do good, 
evil is present with me. Rom. vii. 18-21. 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 159 

Scene 3. 

12 Honour thy father and thy mother. Exod. xx. 12. 
Cursed be he that setteth light by his father or his mother. 

Deut. xxvii. 16. (xxi. 18-21.) 

Scene 5. 

13 They that plow iniquity, and sow wickedness, reap the 
sartie. Job. iv. 8. (Prov. xxii. 8; Hos. x. 13; Gal. vi. 7.) 

14 With my staff I passed over this Jordan ; and now I am 
become two bands [symbol of increase or thrift]. 

Gen. xxxii. 10. 

Scene 6. 

15 Who can find a virtuous woman? for her price is far 
above rubies. Prov. xxxi. lO, II. 

Scene 7. 

16 Be not wise in your own conceits. Rom. xii. 16. 

Scene 8. 

17 The soul of Jonathan was knit with the soul of David, and 
Jonathan loved him as his own soul. / Sam. xviii. i. 

18 Thy love to me was wonderful, passing the love of women. 

2 Sam. i. 26. 

Scene 9. 

19 The words of the Lord are pure words : as silver tried in 
a furnace of earth, purified seven times. Ps. xii. 6. 

20 A prating fool shall fall. Prov. x. 8-10. 

Act ill, Scene 5. 

21 I the Lord thy God am a jealous God. visiting the iniquity 
of the fathers upon the children. Exod. xx. 5. 

22 And the swine. ... Of their tlesli shall yc not eat. and 
their carcase shall ye not touch: they nre unclean to you. 

Lev. xi. 7<8. (Dent, xh: 8.) 



160 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Act IV, Scene i. 

23 Whosoever hateth his brother is a murderer. 

I John in. 5. 

24 And if any mischief follow, then thou shalt give life for 
life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, 
burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe. 

Exod. xxi. 23-25. (Lev. xxiv. 17-22.) 
Ye have heard that it hath been said. An eye for an eye, and 
a tooth for a tooth : but I say unto you, That ye resist not evil : 
but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him 
the other also. Matt. v. 38, 39. 

25 With the merciful thou wilt show thyself merciful. 

2 Sam. xxii. 26. 
Blessed are the merciful : for they shall obtain mercy. 

Matt. V. 7. (Ps. xli. I.) 

26 He shall come down like rain upon the mown grass: as 
showers that water the earth. 

Ps. Ixxii. 6. (Deut. xxxii. 2; Ps. Ixv. lO.) 

27 By the works of the law shall no flesh be justified. 

Gal. ii. 16. 

28 And the Lord shall return his blood upon his own head. 

I Kings a. 32. (Deut. xix. lo; Josh. ii. ig\ 

2 Sam. i. 16. (Matt, xxvii. 25.) 

29 For the love of Jonathan and David see again 

I Sam. xviii. i. 

30 Now Barrabas was a robber. John xviii. 40. 

31 And Daniel convicted them of false witness. And from 
that day forth was Daniel in great reputation. 

Apocrypha : Siis. 61-64. 

32 For by thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words 
thou shalt be condemned. Matt. xii. 37. 

Act V, Scene i. 

33 The heavens declare the glory of God ; and the firmament 
showeth his handiwork. . . , There is no speech nor lan- 
guage, where their voice is not heard. Ps. xix. 1-3. 

When the morning stars sang together, Job xx xviii. 7, 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 161 

34 Neither do men light a candle and put it under a bushel, 
but on a candlestick ; and it giveth light unto all that are in the 
house. Let your light so shine before men, that they may see 
your good works. Matt. v. 15-16. 

They which enter in may see the light. Luke viii. 16. 

35 And when the dew fell upow the camp in the night, the 
manna fell upon it. Ni^m. xi. 9. 

Our fathers did eat manna in the desert. 

JoJm vi. 31. (Ps. Ixxviii. 24, 25.) 

36 Compare the friendship of Antonio for Bassanio with that 
of Jonathan for David. 7 Sam. xviii, 1-4; 

xix, 1-7; XX, 4-22; 2 Sam. i. 26. 
Z7 Compare Portia with the virtuous woman in Proverbs. 

Prov. xxxi. 10-31. 

Development of the Play 

questions for daily lessons* 

Hints 

1 Note how the scenes alternate from Venice to 
Behnont. Why are the business scenes laid in Venice 
and the love scenes in Belmont? 

State where each scene is laid, what characters ap- 
pear in it, and if any new ones are introduced. 

2 Mark quotations in each scene as you read. 

3 Trace scriptural parallels in each scene, and note 
what characters most frequently weave them into their 
speech. (See page 158-9.)' 

4 N-ote in what connection nuisic is introduced or 
referred to and bv whom. 



*To be assigned in advance. 



162 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

First Movement — Collision 
Act I — E^' position 

I What should be accomplished in Act i? (See 
page 122.) Keep these points in mind and trace thein. 
through each scene. Make a summary at the close of 
the act. 

Scene i. 

1 Who are the principal and who the subordinate 
characters in this scene? As you read, see if you can 
discover the keynote to the characters ; if so, give it. 

2 In what mental mood is Antonio at the opening 
of the play ? 

3 Explain the following words and phrases in Sa- 
larino's speeches : argosies, signiors, rich burghers, 
pageants, two-headed Janus, Nestor. 

4 In this scene what is the dramatic purpose of 
Salarino and Salanio ? What do you learn from them ? 

5 Why do Lorenzo and Gratiano come in here with 
Bassanio, when they leave so soon? What do you think 
of Gratiano ? Why do all go out and leave Antonio and 
Bassanio alone? 

6 What do you learn from the conversation between 
Antonio and Bassanio? For what purpose does Bas- 
sanio wish to borrow money? What is his avowed ob- 
ject in wishing to win Portia? 

7 Interpret classical allusions. 

8 What is Portia's complexion? 

9 How much of the work laid down for Act i 
(page 122) is accomplished in this scene? 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 163 

ro The object or dramatic purpose of this scene is 
to show at the very outset the financial condition of Bas- 
sanio and Antonio, which forms tlie basis of the entire 
action of the play. See if you can now trace the object 
of the scenes as they follow one another. 

Scene 2. 

1 In what frame of mind is Portia at the openini^ 
of this scene? Compare her words with Antonio's first 
speech. 

2 By what method is Portia to win a husband, and 
how does it please her? 

3 Name and locate the various countries from 
which her various suitors come, and give Portia's esti- 
mate of each. 

4 Why do they go away without choosing? Why 
does Nerissa at this point recall Bassanio's former visit? 

5 In these two scenes how much of situation and 
plot do you find? 

Scene j. 

1 In this scene why return to Venice instead of 
going right on with the story of the choice of the cas- 
kets? 

2 Where was business largely transacted in Ven- 
ice ? What was the value of a ducat ? 

3 Where are Antonio's argosies? Why does Shy- 
lock hesitate? Why will he not accept the invitation to 
dinner? 

4 Why does he make this (aside) speech? What 
do you learn from it? 

5 What collision begins in this scene? 



164 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

6 Why does Shylock hate Antonio? Does Antonio 
deny Shylock's charges? How does Shylock justify 
himself for taking usury ? 

7 What was the Rialto ? 

8 Compare Antonio's treatment of Shylock with 
Shylock's treatment of Antonio. 

9 What has been accomplished in situation and plot 
in this act? 

Act II — Grozvth 
Scene i. 

J Who is Morocco, and how does he present him- 
self? 

2 What is learned from his first statement? Is 
there any evidence that he is a man of education? 

3 State and interpret classical allusions in this scene. 

4 Is any further light thro^vn upon the plan of 
Portia's father? Why does not Morocco make his choice 
at once? 

5 How do you account for the lack of scriptural 
allusions in this scene? 

Scene 2. 

1 Who is Launcelot? What is his subjective* con- 
flict? Who is carrying on this conversation? Since it 
takes place entirely in Launcelot's mind, why does he 
speak aloud on the stage? 

2 What is the dramatic purpose in having Launce- 
lot desert Shylock for Bassanio ? 

3 In which of the three collisions does this incident 
of story belong? 



*See p. 211. 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 165 

4 This is the only place in the play in which Old 
Gobbo appears ; why introduce him at all ? that is, what 
dramatic purpose does he serve? 

5 Why does not Bassanio wish Gratiano to p^o to 
Belmont with him ? 

6 How does this scene further the action of the 
play ? 

Scene J. 

1 In this scene what do we learn of Shylock as a 
father and a home-maker? 

2 How does Jessica appear as a daughter? 

3 What dramatic purpose does this short scene 
serve? To which of the three threads does it belong? 

Scene 4. 

1 What is this masque which is to take place, and 
why is it planned? Does it take place? 

2 To what stor\' does it belong? 

Scene 5. 

1 This is the only place in the play in which Shy- 
lock appears personally in the home. State the traits 
which he displays. 

2 What is Shylock's estimate of Launcelot? Why 
does he seem willing to part with him ? 

Scene 6. 

1 Do you think Jessica does right in thus deserting 
her father and leaving him entirely alone in the home ? 

2 Is she justifiable in robbing him of his ducats and 
his jewels? 



166 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

3 Why does the masque not take place? What is 
the dramatic purpose of planning it, when it is not to 
take place? 

Scene 7. 

1 Where did we leave Portia and Morocco? What 
do we learn new about the caskets ? 

2 What is Morocco's reasoning? Which casket 
does he choose, and why? What does he find within? 
Why, do you think, is this placed in the golden casket? 

3 Is Portia harsh with him? 

Scene 8. 

1 Why is the story of the caskets interrupted by 
this short scene in Venice? 

2 What purpose does it serve? Bring out four dis- 
tinct points. 

3 Can you see what part Salanio and Salarino take 
all the way through the play ? 

Scene p. 

1 Can you see anything different in Arragon's man- 
ner and choice from Morocco's? 

2 Do we learn from Arragon anything further con- 
cerning the decree of Portia's father? 

3 What was the Prince's reasoning ; and why does 
he choose the silver casket ? 

4 Does Portia know the contents of the caskets? 

5 "There be fools alive, I wis." Look in the dic- 
tionary for *'wis" — "I wis." 

6 Who is the "young Venetian"? 

7 What has been the development or growth of the 
play through this act? 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 167 

Act III— Climax 
Scene /.* 

1 Where is the scene? What is the news on the 
Rialto? Who tells it? 

2 When Shylock first comes in, what is on his mind ? 

3 Why does Salanio immediately suggest Antonio's 
losses ? 

4 What are Shylock's arguments for Jewish rights 
in the speech beginning "To bait fish withal"? Does 
he prove his point? 

5 What is the object in having Tubal come in as the 
others pass out? 

6 Which loss does Shylock feel more keenly — that 
of his ducats or that of his daughter? 

7 Why does Tubal alternate from Shylock's loss to 
Antonio's loss? Does he show the sympathy of a true 
friend for Shylock? 

8 Why are we told of Antonio's losses before Bas- 
sanio hears of them? 

Scene 2. 

1 In point of time is this scene after Scene i ? 

2 Why does Portia wish Bassanio to wait before 
making his choice? She seemed in haste for the others 
to choose. Why does she call for music ? 

3 What are Bassanio's arguments over the thrc^ 
caskets? What does he mean by "hard food for Midas"? 

4 Do you think Portia in any way. intentionally or 
otherwise, influences Bassanio's choice? Has she any 
right to do so? 



♦rjive a name to these Bcenea. 



168 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

5 How does Bassanio ex'press himself when he 
opens the leaden casket ? 

6 How does Portia rate herself and how does she 
rate Bassanio when she surrenders herself to him ? How 
complete is the surrender? Do you think her vmmaid- 
enly? Who gives the ring? What is Bassanio's pledge 
with the ring ? 

7 What surprise has Gratiano for his friends? In 
what way does this episode add to the play? 

8 How does it happen that the runaway Jessica and 
Lorenzo drift to Belmont, and that they arrive just at 
this time? 

9 Who is Salerio, and what news does he bring? 
(Note here how Antonio comes in as a link: Salerio 
says, "Signior Antonio commends him to you.") 

10 In what light does Salerio place Shylock? What 
is Jessica's testimony concerning her father? Through- 
out the play does Jessica manifest any filial affection? 

11 How does Bassanio receive the announcement of 
Antonio's losses? How does Portia receive the news? 

12 Why will she have the marriages take place be- 
fore Bassanio and Gratiano leave? Is not this rather im- 
modest haste? How would Portia's conduct in the whole 
affair be viewed nowadays? 

This forms the climax of the love collision, which 
certainly is Comedy in its most perfect sense. 

Since the whole action of the play depends upon the 
fact of Antonio's money, when it is believed that his 
argosies are lost and that all is gone, the entire action 
changes. 

In the Shakespearean drama the climax or turning"- 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 169 

;<oint is always in Act iii. In this play the love thread 
is so closely interwoven with the property thread that 
the two move on together and have a common climax. 
We now see why from the standpoint of dramatic struc- 
ture Bassanio's choice of the caskets could not follow the 
announcement of his arrival at the close of Act ii. Here 
ends the first movement. 

Second Movement — Mediation 
Scene j. 

Shylock and Antonio, the leaders in the property and 
the religious conflicts, open this movement. 

1 Shylock shows what characteristic? what spirit? 

2 In what spirit does xA.ntonio meet the situation? 

3 Why does Salarino appear at all ? 

Scene 4. 

Notice how adroitly the poet has brought Jessica and 
Lorenzo to Belmont, and, remember, through the agency 
of Antonio. 

1 Can you see any real purpose in bringing them 
here, to Portia's house? 

2 Why does Portia plan to leave her home and go 
to the monastery ? Does she go ? Is she honest ? 

3 What do you think of her plan to send Balthazar 
to Padua to Bellario, while she goes to Venice? Would 
it not have been better for her to go to see Bellario her- 
self? 

4 What mental characteristics and ability does she 
show through all of this planning? Notice that when 
the news of Antonio's losses come she docs not wait for 



170 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Bassanio to decide what to do, but instantly, with no 
hesitation, takes the whole affair in hand. 

5 What mental traits does she show in her speech to 
Nerissa ? 

6 In whose care does she leave her house during 
her absence ? 

7 Portia says, "We must measure twenty miles to- 
day." What day? is it the same day on which Bassanio 
leaves ? 

Scene 5. 

1 What is the object of this scene? Is anything 
learned from it? Does it in any way further the action 
of the play ? What would be the effect of leaving it out ? 

2 Launcelot is now in Bassanio's service ; why is 
he not with his new master? 

3 How do you account for the fact that there are 
so few Biblical allusions in this act? 

Act /F* — Consequences 
Scene i. 

1 Where does this scene take place, and who are 
present at the opening? 

2 The case seems to open before Shy lock is brought 
into court ; how do you explain this ? 

3 What is Antonio's spirit? With whom does the 
Duke seem to sympathize? What is the Duke's office? 

4 How does the Duke try to reach the heart of the 
Jew? Do you think he really expects "a gentle answer"? 

5 Analyze the steps in Shylock's answer. What 



•Give a particular name to thils act. 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 171 

points does he consider unanswerable, and what unnec- 
essary to answer? 

6 What does Antonio mean when he says, "I pray 
you think you question with the Jew"? Analyze his 
speech. 

7 Is there any real dramatic purpose in having Bas- 
sanio tender Shylock his money in open court? Who 
first suggests mercy? 

8 When Shylock says, '*What judgment should I 
dread, doing no wrong?" does he refer to the civil law 
or to moral law, or both ? Give his arguments. 

9 Do you think Bassanio would really have taken 
Antonio's place, thereby surrendering his life, and Por- 
tia ; or is this tender simply made on the impulse of the 
moment ? 

10 Is there any special object in having Shylock 
whet his knife here in court? 

11 Read Bellario's letter carefully; did Portia go 
to Padua? Why does Bellario say ''a young man from 
Rome"? 

12 Why did not the poet send Bellario himself to 
Venice, instead of Portia? How does it add to the plot 
or the strength of the play to have Portia try the case ? 

13 What element of Christianity does Portia first 
introduce, and what opportunity does she offer to Shy- 
lock to save himself ? 

14 How does she weigh Mercy and Justice? 

15 How does Shylock show his religion at this 
point ? 

iT) Why cannot Portia "do a little wrong" in order 
that "a great right may be done"? 



172 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

17 Portia sees the end from the beginning; should 
Shylock yield to her pleadings for Antonio, how would 
he be affected by it in the end? Name the different 
opportunities which she offers, or appeals which she 
makes. 

18 Notice how adroitly Portia plants herself with 
Shylock on the platform of the Law, although she still 
continues to plead with him. 

19 Why does Shylock call Portia a Daniel? 

20 When Antonio is called upon to speak for him- 
self, what spirit does he show? Compare with that 
shown in Act i. Scene 3. 

21 In Bassanio's speech following, which element 
is stronger, friendship or love? Do you think that 
Portia admires him more or less for this speech ? 

22 Do you think any court would justify Portia in 
making the scales turn here upon a drop of blood ? No- 
tice how Shylock's own words come back to him through 
Gratiano. Is Gratiano merciful ? 

23 Sum up the points in the laws of Venice as 
given by Portia. 

24 Is Portia, who has been pleading mercy, dis- 
posed to show mercy ? Do you think she is consistent ? 

25 Go back over the case and trace step by step 
the appeals that had been made to Shylock, and see how 
each now comes back to him — "My deeds upon my 
head." 

26 After Portia has pronounced judgment, what 
last hope does she offer Shylock? 

27 It is left for Antonio to complete -Shylock's sen- 
tence, by compelling him to renounce his religion and 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 173 

become a Christian and bestow the remainder of his 
property at his death, upon his runaway Christian 
daughter. Do you see any reactionary justice in giving 
this part of the sentence to Antonio ? 

28 When Shylock pleads illness, does the Duke 
show pity? 

29 How would Gratiano have completed the sen- 
tence? What spirit does he show throughout the entire 
trial? 

30 Poor Shylock seems spared only one thing, the 
humiliation of being compelled to sign the deed in court 
in the presence of all. Do you feel any sympathy for the 
Jew? 

31 As Portia will accept no fee, why does she de- 
mand the ring? Is she justifiable? 

32 Why is the ring episode introduced here? How 
does it afifect the play ? 

The saving of Antonio's life, the loss of Shylock's 
money, the termination of the property conflict in the 
decision in favor of the life, plainly show that this con- 
flict ends in Comedy. 

Since Shylock is obliged to renounce his religion for 
Christianity, the religious conflict is Comedy. 

Shylock's life is spared ; hence in the strictly dra- 
matic sense he does not come to a tragic end. Is there 
any indication that he feels death would be preferable? 

Can you see that he is disposed of as an individual 
just as effectually as though he lost his life?* 



'See Tragedy and Comcdij, p. 127. 



174 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

The second movement, Mediation, now ends with the 
little episode of the rings, which links it to the 
Third Movement — The Solution 

Act V—The Close 
Scene i. 

1 Where is the scene of this act? 

2 What is the character of the opening conversation 
in this scene? Why should the scene open in this way? 

3 Has Lorenzo turned poet? What kind of a night 
is it? What things have happened ''in such a night"? 

4 How does music affect Jessica? What does Lo- 
renzo say of the effect of music? Note familiar quota- 
tions. 

5 From what place is Portia supposed to be return- 
ing? 

6 Could this conversation between Lorenzo and 
Jessica have taken place between Gratiano and Nerissa? 
Why or why not? 

7 To what does Portia refer when she says, '*So 
shines a good deed in a naughty world"? 

8 Do you think Bassanio and Gratiano justifiable 
in giving away their wives' rings? Do Portia and Ne- 
rissa think any less of them for it? 

9 What do you think of Portia's manner of han- 
dling the aifair? Is she not rather tantalizing when she 
knows the whole truth? 

ID Why is Nerissa constantly with Portia through 
the entire play? 

II Make a list of the "sweet" and the "sweetest" 
things in this act ? Who uses the terms ? 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 175 

12 What characters are brought together in Por- 
tia's home at the last? Who are left out? Why? 

13 This act is composed of "sweets," moonshine, 
music, love. Why? 

14 Of what is Portia's home a type? 

15 Note that to make the Comedy complete An- 
tonio's argosies "richly come to harbour suddenly." 

16 Why is this scene placed in the night?- Is it 
any more effective? if so, why? 

17 If the ring episode were left out, how^ would you 
end the play? 

GENERAL QUESTIONS 

1 In what scene do you like Portia best? 

2 The court or trial scene is considered the strong- 
est scene in the play — indeed, one of the strongest scenes 
in any of Shakespeare's plays. Why? 

3 What particular things make The Merchant of 
Venice an interesting and a popular play? 

4 It is considered a good acting play. Why? 

5 Why is the play called The Merchant of Voiicef 
With what class of society does it deal? 

6 What is the theme of the play? 

7 Why may Shakespeare's financial condition have 
suggested the writing of the play? 

8 Compare the scenes in Venice with the scenes in 
Belmont. 

9 Name the two secondary themes in the order of 
their "dramatic importance. 

10 What two old stories and what two episodes did 
Shakespeare weave into the play? 



176 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

II. What three forms of property are considered, 
and of what may each be considered a type ? 

12 Name the four leading characters of the play in 
the order of story ; of dramatic importance ; of strength ; 
of beauty of character. 

13 What dramatic purpose do the following serve: 
Nerissa? Gratiano? Lorenzo? Launcelot? 

14 What brings out Jessica's native modesty? 

15 What is the dramatic purpose of the Lorenzo 
and Jessica episode? It helps to work out which of the 
three themes? What effect would the omission of it 
have on the drama ? 

16 What is the only really discordant element in the 
play, and when does it drop out ? Why at this point ? 

17 In the Religious conflict of what are the follow- 
ing types : Shylock ? Antonio ? Portia ? 

18 In what way do Jessica and Launcelot seem to 
serve as a connecting link between Judaism and Chris- 
tianity ? 

19 What are the two strong inducements for Jes- 
sica's elopement? 

20 What is Shylock's most forcible argument for 
fair treatment from the Christians ? Where found ? 

21 Had Portia any precedent for requiring Shylock 
to take the exact pound of flesh, no more, no less ? 

22 Where in the play does Portia appear the strong- 
est ? Where the most womanly ? 

23 Give Bassanio's characteristics. Is he worthy of 
Portia? 

34 The dramatic problem is solved in Act iv; why 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 177 

does the play not end there? What is the purpose of 
x\ct V? 

25 What dramatic purpose does the ring episode 
serve ? 

26 In the play which is stronger, the element of 
friendship or the element of love? 

2^ What purpose does music serve in the play? 

28 Show how the play is Comedy : First, in the 
Property conflict ; secondly, in the Religious conflict ; 
thirdly, in the Love conflict. 

29 To what extent is the play Tragedy and to what 
extent Comedy for Shylock? Where is the ''Nemesis" 
of the play ? 

30 Why is the play Tragi-Comedy ? 

31 What is the climax of the play? Why? 

2^2. Give an incident of plot ; an incident of story. 
Is the choice of Portia by means of the caskets an inci- 
dent of plot or of story? 

33 Does the play satisfy these three conditions : 

1 Does it tell a dramatically complete story? 

2 Is the story worked out by means of purely 
human and probable characters? 

J Is it worked out in a way to be pleasing to 
the audiences of Shakespeare's day and of our own 
day? 

34 Is there any dramatic purpose in having Jessica 
and Lorenzo drift to Belmont when they eloj^te? Why 
does the play in the end bring all of the principal char- 
acters, except Shylock, together in Belmont? Why is 
not Shvlock there also ? 



178 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Scheme for Outline Book 

■ (A) 

I The Drama. 

1 Define and give origin. 

2 State briefly the origin and development of the 

EngHsh Drama. 

3 Describe the theater and manner of presenting a 

play in Shakespeare's time. 

II Name the three most important senior contempor- 

aries of Shakespeare, and compare them with 
him in character and education. 

III The Merchant of Venice. 

1 Classify the play. Why is it Tragi-Comedy ? 

2 With what class of society does it deal? What is 

the theme of the play? Why are the business 
scenes laid in Venice? 

3 What are the secondary themes of the play ? 

4 Show how the play is Comedy in each of the three 

themes or conflicts. 

5 Compare Shylock's treatment of Antonio with An- 

tonio's treatment of Shylock. 

6 Make a table of the entrance and exits of charac- 

ters. 
/^ Give a memorized quotation from speeches of each 

of the following persons, and tell where found 

— Portia, Antonio, Bassanio, Shylock, Gratiano, 

Nerissa. 
8 How is music used in the play? 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 179 

IV Read As You Like It 

Name the animals mentioned in the play. Give 
two good quotations from each act. What is the 
supernatural element in the play? 

(B) 

I The Drama. 

1 Define the Drama and give its origin. 

2 In about ten lines give the most important points 

in the development of the English Drama. 
Name the three essential elements of the Mod- 
ern Drama. 

3 Write a tabular classification of the Shakespearean 

Drama. Define terms. 

II Where was Shakespeare's Hfe spent? Divide into 

three periods in point of time. State two im- 
portant facts in each period. 

III The Merchant of Venice. 

1 Classify the play The Merchmit of Venice. Give 

reasons for classification. 

2 Make a table of the entrance and exits of charac- 

ters. 

3 What is the real theme of the play ? What are the 

secondary themes? Wliat is the climax? 

4 Name four characteristics of each of the following 

persons, giving quotations to prove your state- 
' ments: Portia, Antonio, Shylock. Bassanio, 
Jessica. Give Gratiano's characteristics from 
his own words. 

5 Name the characters in the order of the story; in 

the order of dramatic importance. 



180 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

IV Read As You Like It. 

Name the animals mentioned in the play. Give 
two good quotations from each act. What is the 
supernatural element in the play? 

Suggestive Topics for Essays and Discussion 

1 The City of Venice ; why selected as the scene 
for the business action of the play. 

2 The character of Portia. 

3 Portia as a daughter; as a lawyer. 

4 The character of Jessica compared with that of 
Portia. 

5 The three women in the play compared in char- 
acter and dramatic purpose. 

6 The choice of the caskets; object of Portia's 
father in making such a requirement. 

7 The three suitors ; their characters. Does Portia 
in any way influence their choice ? 

8 The religion of Shylock and Antonio as mani- 
fested in their daily life. 

9 The pathetic side of Shylock's situation. 

ID The three love stories; compare them in their 
dramatic importance. 

1 1 The character of Nerissa ; her part in the play. 

12 Antonio as a business man; as a Christian; as a 
friend. 

13 The character of Bassanio; was he worthy of 
Portia ? 

14 The character of Gratiano ; compare with Antonio. 

15 The reunion at Belmont. 



THE MERCHANT OF VENICE 181 

16 Antonio the man. 

a Bassanio's estimate of Antonio, 
b Shylock's estimate. 

c Antonio as he manifests himself in the play. 
Combine these three points and work out his character. 

17 Which makes his religion the more attractive, 
Antonio or Shylock ? 





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184 NOTES 



NOTES 185 



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NOTES 



NOTES 187 



JULIUS C^SAR 

Sidelights 

plot and characters 

In his three Roman plays Shakespeare shows Roman 
hfe dramatized : Coriolanus portrays the struggle of 
classes ; Julius Ca:sar the struggle of principles ; 
Antony and Cleopatra the struggle of individuals; still, 
in all of these plays the characters are so marvelously 
drawn that our interest centers in them rather than in 
the State. 

Julius Ccesar is a drama of the State. It portrays a 
conflict between the worn-out Republic and the incoming 
one-man power. Its theme is "Down with tyranny and 
the tyrant." Brutus hates tyranny ; Cassius hates the 
tyrant. 

Date of Play. The play was probably written about 
1601, or just about the time of the conspiracy of Essex 
and Southampton against the life of Elizabeth, for which 
Essex lost his head and Southampton was sent to the 
Tower ; Brandes thinks these events may have directed 
Shakespeare's thoughts to political intrigues and sug- 
gested the writing of Julius Ccesar. 

Source of Plot. In this drama Shakespeare has 
almost transcribed Plutarch ; in none of his other plays 
has he followed the source of his plot so closely. If 

188 



JULIUS C^SAR 189 

the student will read the lives of Caesar and Brutus in 
North's Plutarch, =^ and then read Julius Cccsar, he will 
find that in the latter not only Plutarch's story is given, 
but the incidents with a few variations, the supersti- 
tions, the omens, and in many cases the very language 
of the Greek writer. But what a transformation ! The 
great master has endowed the narrative of Plutarch with 
dramatic life ; the characters are no longer men in a 
book, but are alive before us, speaking for themselves. 
No more striking illustration can be found of the con- 
trast between the narrative and the dramatic form of 
literature. 

Shakespeare's Cccsar. That Shakespeare has chosen 
here to present Plutarch's weak Caesar instead of the 
grand Caesar of history has been ever a puzzle to critics. 
Some have even gone so far as to say that he could 
have had no just conception of this world-hero. A care- 
ful study of this play, and allusions to Caesar in other 
plavs, shows the incorrectness of this conclusion. Ham- 
let, philosophizing upon the return of the body to Mother 
Earth, says : 

Imperious Caesar, dead and turned to clay, 
Might stop a hole to keep the wind away: 
O, that that earth, which kept the world in awe, 
Should patch a wall t' expel the winter's flaw ! 

Here Shakespeare recognizes the man who could 
keep the world in awe, and surely such a man could be 
no weakling. George Brandes thinks that had Shake- 
speare made the Caesar of history the real hero of the 
*See Shakespeare's I'lutarch, Skeat (Macmillan). 



190 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

play he would have given us a far more wonderful 
drama, and that in not doing so he lost a great oppor- 
tunity. Other critics think quite the opposite. 

Since the great dramatist takes his material from 
whatever source he pleases, and handles it as he pleases, 
we shall treat the play in this study as though it were 
all his own : we will study it as Shakespeare, and not as 
Plutarch. 

Ccusar and Bnitiis. In the play Caesar appears only 
three times : in Act i. Scene 2, he appears in a public 
place to witness the race; in Act 11, Scene 2, we see 
him in his home; in Act iii. Scene i, he goes to the 
Senate House, where he is assassinated. Throughout 
the entire play the interest centers in Brutus; it almost 
seems as though the drama must have been written to 
show how this man of high ideals and noble impulses is 
at last vanquished through over-confidence in his ideals, 
and in men's acceptance of them, and a lack of political 
insight or judgment ; he can theorize, but when he comes 
to deal with men in the outside world he fails. A care- 
ful reading shows that the conflict is not with Caesar the 
individual but with Caesar the ''Institutional person," 
and that the spirit of Caesar is more powerful after the 
assassination than before. Brutus sounds the keynote 
when he says: 

We all stand up against the spirit of Caesar, 
And in the spirit of men there is no blood; 
O, that we then could come by Caesar's spirit, 
And not dismember Caesar ! 

Institutional Persons, Thus we see that Brutus and 
Cassius, the Institutional persons, stand for the Repub- 



JULIUS C^SAR 191 

lie, the government in which the people have a voice. 
Caesar the Institutional person stands for the one-man 
power. Or may we not feel that the Caesar of history 
saw the failure of the Republic and realized that the sal- 
vation of Rome lay in the better government which could 
be obtained only by taking the power out of the hands 
of factions which were using it only for self-aggrandize- 
ment, and placing it in the hands of one man who would 
study the good of the State. History shows that Caesar 
was cut down in the midst of the grandest plans for the 
State, and the golden age of Rome was the age of 
Augustus, when the spirit of the great Julius reigned. 

Tragedy and Comedy. The life which moves through 
struggle to the repose of peace is Comedy. Studying 
the play in this light, we see that while it is a great 
tragedy for individuals, as a drama of government, it is 
really a great comedy for the State of Rome : the mis- 
rule of the Republic has been crushed, and harmony is 
restored through Octavius, the bearer of Caesar's spirit ; 
for a short while, until this spirit is violated, Rome is at 
rest under the rule of the Empire. The gates of the 
Temple of Janus, which were kept open in time of war 
and were closed in time of peace, were shut three times 
during the reign of Augustus, while in the entire pre- 
vious history of the State they had been closed but twice, 
so constantly had she been at war; and as Rome was 
Mistress of the World, this meant that peace prevailed 
throughout the entire civilized world. What a fitting 
time to usher in the Prince of Peace, who was born dur- 
ing the reign of Augustus ! 



192 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA . 



ETHICAL STANDPOINT OF THE PLAY 

This drama has full sweep in Shakespeare's Ethical 
World. Domestic life, or the Institution of the Family, 
has but small place here, but it is shown in its most beau- 
tiful, most perfect form in the relations between Brutus 
and Portia. The great conflict is in the State — seem- 
ingly between two factions, really between the spirit of 
the old Republic, which has degenerated into the misrule 
of factions and anarchy, and the Phoenix which is to rise 
from its ashes in the form of a wise government, al- 
though administered by one man. 

World Spirit. This spirit of the survival of the fittest, 
which we see triumphing in the rise and fall of nations, 
is the World Spirit of Shakespeare's Ethical World.* 
Some individual must be the bearer of this spirit, but 
back of the individual must be a greater power — The 
People. The cornerstone in the foundation of our own 
national structure was the spirit of freedom. This spirit 
could not endure the enslaving of man by his fellow 
man. When the final conflict came, Abraham Lincoln 
was the bearer of this spirit, but back of him was The 
People; without this support he would have been power- 
less. The mortal Lincoln, like Caesar, suffered martyr- 
dom at the hands of misled fanaticism, but the spirit of 
Lincoln, the World Spirit of freedom and justice, lives 
on and can never die. What was it but the cry of The 
People that settled the great conflict caused by the coal 
strike in 1902? Both capital and labor had to make 
concessions at the demand of The People, 



*See "World Spirit," p. 109. 



JULIUS C/ESAR 193 

The People in Julius Cccsar. In this most popular 
of Shakespeare's historical dramas we must by no means 
overlook this most powerful element, Tlie People. 
Notice how careful Caesar is to keep in touch with The 
People when he refuses the crown. After the assassina- 
tion the first thought of Brutus and Cassius is to pacify 
The People. Antony is so successful in his appeal to 
The People that Brutus and Cassius are compelled to 
flee, and why? because the spirit of Caesar and the spirit 
of The People are one. After the misrule, the blood- 
shed, the anarchy of the worn-out Republic, the time 
has come for this World-Historical-Spirit to assert itself, 
and bring peace and rest to Rome. Perhaps this may 
explain why Shakespeare chose to begin his drama with 
the very last events of Caesar's life ; to show that he was 
mightier in his death than in his life. The poet's object 
seems to have been not to write a drama of the objective 
events of the life of this great man but to show him as 
the bearer of this great World Spirit before which gov- 
ernments rise and fall. 

Rome has always hated the name King: this World 
Spirit of freedom was right, but Rome had failed in 
execution. 

The spirit of freedom, if it does not produce the best 
government for the people, results either in the tyranny 
of factions, or in that license which finally ends in an- 
archy. The politician Cassius in his hatred of the tyrant 
utterly fails to comprehend the needs of Rome ; perhaps 
he is too narrow to comprehend anything so broad. 
Brutus in his hatred of tyranny fails also. for. while he 
recognizes Caesar as only the bearer of a spirit, his vision 



194 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

is not clear, and he does not recognize in this spirit the 
great World Spirit of history ; he fancies that by killing 
the body he can kill the spirit. Naturally hating blood- 
shed, how gladly would he kill the spirit and not dis- 
member Caesar, were it possible. He strikes the blow 
that awakens the spirit of Caesar within The People, 
for Antony only arouses to action the World Spirit 
already there. 

Brutus and Cassius, having arrayed themselves 
against this spirit, meet their fate at Philippi, and thus 
the deed returns upon the doer, and Nemesis is satisfied. 

THE C^SAR OF HISTORY 

In War. When only eighteen years of age Caesar 
commanded the fleet that blockaded Mit}'lene, and by 
his personal bravery won the crown of oak leaves. At 
the age of twenty-four years he was captured by pirates, 
obtained his release by payment of fifty talents, provided 
himself with a fleet and captured and crucified the pirates, 
as he had told tfiem he would do. At twenty-six years 
of age he was made Military Tribune, and at thirty-six 
Pontifex Maximus. When Catiline was charged with 
conspiracy, Caesar opposed the death sentence without 
trial, and his life was threatened. 

Victorious in Spain, upon his return he was elected 
Consul in 60 b. c. He now outgeneraled the Senate, by 
securing the passage of an agrarian law which provided 
for the veterans of Pompey's army and gave land to 
needy citizens, and also relieved the tax collectors, who 
had paid too high for their privileges. Thus he showed 



JULIUS C^SAR 195 

his statesmanship by satisfying his rival, Pompey, pleas- 
ing the people, reconciling the capitalists, and weakening 
the power of a despotic Senate. 

At the expiration of his term of office he was given 
command in Gaul with three legions. Now began his 
famous Gallic campaigns, which were marked by per- 
sonal bravery and wise judgment. Always victorious, 
he made a friend of the enemy, created new Roman 
provinces, and when ordered to lay down his command, 
dared to brave the Senate and cross the Rubicon with 
his army, which made him in the eyes of Rome a traitor 
to his country. Succeeding in making himself master of 
Rome, he defeated Pompey at Pharsalia in 48 b. c. ; 
crushed the rebellion of Pharnaces, and defeated Cato 
and Scipio in Africa in 46 b. c, and Pompey's sons at 
Munda in Spain in March, 45 b. c. In September he 
was made dictator for life, and March 15, 44 b. c, was 
assassinated. His assassination has been termed "The 
most brutal and the most pathetic scene that profane 
history has to record." Goethe calls it "the most sense- 
less deed that ever was done." 

Works of Peace. The decaying Republic was C?esar's 
opportunity. Instead of standing for liberty, for free- 
dom, it meant only anarchy. When Caesar took the helm, 
Rome w^as still reeking with the blood of proscriptions; 
no life was really safe ; the populace consisted of slaves 
and hordes of captives taken in war from all the tribes 
of Europe, Asia and Africa surrounding the Mediter- 
ranean: all of these swarms of captives, freedmen and 
slaves, without thought of labor, were fed at the public 



196 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

crib. Caesar at once planned great works of public con- 
struction and improvements, thus reducing pauperism by 
giving employment to the idle. He encouraged agricul- 
tural colonies in the newly acquired territory. He 
passed bankruptcy laws which relieved the debtor and 
at the sam€ time spared the creditor. 

Personal Characteristics. Caesar is said to have been 
an lathlete in early life, very fond of the bath, enjoying 
a plunge in the Tiber. An expert horseman, in his Gallic 
campaigns he rode a horse which no one else could 
mount. He enjoyed excellent health until the last year 
of his life, when he became a victim of the "falling sick- 
ness" to which Brutus alludes. History writes him down 
as a humanitarian, and as an author worthy of imita- 
tion. ''No military narrative has approached the excel- 
lence of the history of the war in Gaul." He was a wise 
statesman, one of the world's most famous generals, and 
as generous in peace as he was brave in war. No blood 
flowed in Rome by his direction. He was great enough 
to forgive his enemies, a thing in that age of the world 
unexampled in history. 

STRUCTURE 

Threads. The structure of the play is simple and 
easily traced. The suggestions already given disclose 
the threads. The first is the World Spirit represented 
by Caesar and his friends. Antony's friendship is purely 
for the individual Caesar; he has no conception of the 
spirit Caesar represents, which fact is shown by his later 
life and by his death ; still, he forms the connecting link 



JULIUS C.ICSAR 197 

between Ccxsar and Octavius, the l)carcr of Caesar's spirit. 
The second thread consists of the conspirators who array 
themselves in opposition to the World Spirit, led by 
Cassius and Brutus. For convenience we may call the 
threads Caesar's Thread and the Conspirator's Thread. 

Movements. As in most of Shakespeare's tragedies, 
the first movement is stronger than the second, "the or- 
ganization and the action more complete." As the play 
works up to the climax, each step links into the preced- 
ing with an intensity of interest, while the consequences 
which follow the climax, in the fourth and fifth acts, 
are more disjointed, looser in structure, and hence the 
intensity of interest lags a trifle. In the first movement 
the action is in Rome, portraying her internal conflict ; 
the movement ends in the assassination of Caesar ; the 
spirit of Caesar drives the conspirators out. The second 
movement is external to Rome ; when outside of the state 
the conspirators fight the spirit of Caesar until, overcome, 
they fall upon their own swords and die by their own 
hands. 

These points are only suggestive ; the pupil should 
work out the movements more fully, and complete the 
threads. 

TIME ANALYSIS 

According to history, Caesar's last triumph was cele- 
"brated in October, 45 p.. c. The feast of Lupercal oc- 
curred February 15, 44 b. c. The assassination of Caesar 
was on March 15, 44 b. c. ; his funeral on March 19th 
or 20th. Octavius arrived at Rome in JNIay; the Trium- 



198 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

virate was not formed until November, 43 b. c. ; a year 
later, in October, 42 b. c, two battles were fought at 
Philippi, twenty days apart. 

The play opens with the feast of Lupercal, February 
15, 44 B. c, and closes with the battle of Philippi, in 
October, 42 b. c, covering a period of two and a half 
years. One of the Commoners says : "We make holiday 
to see Caesar and rejoice in his triumph." It is usually 
inferred that Shakespeare combines the October triumph 
with the feast of Lupercal. He combines the two battles 
of Philippi and makes the other events follow in rapid 
succession. Mr. Daniels finds that the action on the 
stage covers six days with intervals. The action in Scene 
3, Act I, evidently occurs on the same night as that in 
Scene i, Act 11, in which Lucius says, "March is wasted 
fourteen days" ; hence the interval between Scenes 2 and 
3, Act I, must have been one m.onth. Act iii follows on 
the next day without interruption. Then follows a con- 
siderable time between Act iii and Scene i, Act iv. Dur- 
ing the spring and summer of 42 b. c. Brutus and Cassius 
were in Asia Minor, in Sardis and its vicinity ; there 
must have been another long interval between Scenes 
I and 2 and between Acts iv and v, as long enough time 
must have elapsed for the army to march from Sardis to 
Philippi. This time analysis may be presented to the eye 
in tabular form : 



JULIUS C^.SAR 



199 



JULIUS C.*:SAR 


TIMB ANALYSIS 


DATS 


ACT 


SCENE 




1 


1 


1-2 


February 15, 44 b.c. Feast of Lupercal. 








Interval-one month. 


2 


I 


3 


March 15, 44 b.c. Early morning. 


3 


II-III 




March 16, 44 b.c. Ides. Assassination. 








Historical interval— one year, eight months. 


4 


IV 


1 


November, 43 b.c. Meeting of Triumvirate. 








Interval— several months. 


5 


IV 


2-3 


Sardis, 42 b.c. 








Interval— at least long enough for the army 
to march from Sardis to Phlllppl. 


G 


V 




October, 42 b. c. Battle of Philippl. 



Class Study 



QUESTIONS 



1 What period of Roman history does this drama 
represent ? 

2 What is the theme of the play? 

3 What is the real conflict? 

4 If Shakespeare designed to make this a drama of 
Julius Caesar, why did he simply make use of Cnesar's 
death instead of his life? 

5 Do you think the play is properly called Julius 
Ccusar? Why, or why not? 

6 Why does the play open with The People? 



200 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

7 Name the places in the play in which The People 
appear, and show the dramatic purpose which they serve. 

8 Compare Calpurnia and Portia in their domestic 
relations and character. 

9 What dramatic purpose do they serve? 
[p Does Portia betray her secret? 

11 Portia has been called Shakespeare's most mod- 
ern woman. Why? 

12 The Supernatural Element. 

1 What use is made of the supernatural in the 
play? Is it introduced merely for enlivenment and to 
awaken interest, or has it a dramatic purpose in the 
movement of the play ? If so, what ? 

2 How does nature seem to sympathize with the 
spirit of the play ? 

5 Make a list of the supernatural manifestations, 
omens, and so forth, and state where found, and who 
speaks of them or sees them. 

4 Can you feel that the whole atmosphere of the 
play is electrical? 

13 Cassius and the Conspiracy. 

1 Why does Cassius plan the conspiracy? 

2 Make a list of the steps and arguments by 
which Cassius wins Brutus. 

J By which he wins Casca. 

4 Compare Brutus and Casca and show why each 
was necessary to make the conspiracy a success. 

5 How does Cassius show his ability in making 
up the band of conspirators ? 

6 Is he a true patriot ? 

7 Estimate his character as a man. 






JULIUS C/ESAR 201 

14 Brutus. 

1 At the very opening of the play, to which 
party does he belong? 

2 Why does Cassius select Brutus as the first to 
be persuaded to join him ? 

J What traits of character does Brutus show in 
his conversation with Cassius in Act i. Scene 2? 

4 In discussing plans with the conspirators (Act 
II, Scene i ) what characteristics does he show ? 

5 What reasons does he give for joining the 
conspirators ? 

6 After the assassination does he manifest the 
spirit shown in his words, *'0, that we could come by 
Caesar's spirit and not dismember Caesar"? 

7 What effect did joining the conspirators have 
upon Brutus as a man? 

8 According to Titinius, whose fault was it that 
the battle of FMiilippi was lost? 

p In his famous oration, to what elements in The 
People does Brutus appeal ? 

10 Is he a politician? Give reasons. 

11 Is he a statesman ? Give reasons. 

12 Is he a general? Give reasons. 

Jj Is he a true patriot ? Give reasons. 

14 What characteristics does he show in his atti- 
tude toward Portia? 

75 What in his treatment of the boy Lucius all 
through the play? 

16 What is Brutus's philosophy concerning sui- 
cide ? According to his own theory, is he courageous 
or cowardly to take his own life? 



202 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

7/ Brutus is usually considered the great char- 
acter of the play ; is his life a failure or a success ? 
Why? 

i8 Brutus has been called the Sphinx of the play. 
Why? 

ig> Make a list of the contradictions in his char- 
acter. 

20 Make a synopsis of his oration. 

21 What point do you think had the greatest ef- 
fect upon The People? 

22 Brutus says : "As I slew my best lover for the 
good of Rome, I have the same dagger for myself 
when it shall please my country to need my death." 
Is this his reason for falling upon his sword after the 
battle of Philippi ? 

15 Make a list of the points upon which Cassius and 
Brutus differ. Who always yields to the other? Whose 
judgment is better? 

16 The tent scene, or quarrel between Brutus and 
Cassius, has ever been considered one of the finest scenes 
in the play. Can you see why? What is the object of 
it? How does it bring out each of the characters? Does 
it forward the dramatic movement of the play ? 

17 According to history, Portia suffocated herself 
with hot coals on account of grief on hearing of the 
death of Brutus. Do you see any dramatic purpose in 
placing her death first (in the play) ? 

18 Make a list in parallel columns of the character- 
istics of Brutus and Cassius. 



JULIUS CESAR 203 

19 Antony. 

1 What traits of Antony's character are revealed 
at the opening of the play ? 

2 What traits does he display in conversation 
with Brutns and Cassiiis after Caesar's death ? 

J When Antony speaks of Caesar's spirit lonii^in.i; 
for revenge, does he comprehend that Caesar's spirit 
is the World Spirit of history which cannot be 
crushed ? 

4 In his famous oration, to what did he appeal 
in The People? 

5 Give the steps and arguments by which he 
reached his result. 

6 When Brutus appealed to The People, he car- 
ried them with him. When x\ntony followed, he 
immediately w^on them to his side. Had Anton \- 
have spoken first, would they have turned from An- 
tony to Brutus ? 

/ In settling affairs in the triumvirate (Act iv, 
Scene i), what traits of character does Antony show? 

8 What traits does he show when he finds 
Brutus slain by his own hand? 

9 Antony could win The People. Could he win 
individual men ? Cassius could win individual men ; 
could he sway The People? 

10 Was Antony a true patriot? 

20 Who is the political man of the play? The 
moral man? The non-moral man? 

21 What is the dramatic purpose of Act 111, 
Scene 3? 



204 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

22 The word "Honor" in the play. 

1 By whom and when are this word and its 
derivatives, honest, Honorable, and so forth, used in 
the play? To whom does the word seem to belong? 

2 While reading the play, count the number of 
times this word is used. 

22i The word "Spirit" in the play. 

1 Trace this word in the play and show its sig- 
nificance; could it be left out or anything substituted 
for it? 

2 Count the number of times it occurs. 

24 Why does the ghost of Csesar appear to Brutus 
before the battle of Philippi? 

25 Can you see that this drama is Comedy for 
Rome? 

26 How is Nemesis satisfied? 

27 If you think that Brutus' career was a constant 
fall, so represent it and state each downward step. 
Brutus at the opening of the play, 



Death by his own hand. 

Suit your figure to the character chosen. 
Scheme for Outline Book 

The Drama. 

1 Define and give origin. 

2 In parallel columns state the distinctive features 

of the Legendary and the Historical drama. 

3 Define the term World Spirit, 



JULIUS C^SAR • 205 

II Julius CcBsar. 

1 Make a table of the entrance and exit of twenty- 

five of the most important characters, inckiding 
the Tribunes who open the play. 

2 Make a list of the supernatural manifestations, 

omens, and so forth, in the play, stating who 
sees them or speaks of them. Give act and 
scene. 

3 Make a list of the events in the play which differ 

from the events in history. 

4 Give an analysis of Antony's oration, and show 

his method of moving the people. 

5 Show the course of Brutus in the play by graphic 

illustration. 

6 Give at least two quotations from each of the 

following persons which indicate their ' char- 
acter : C?esar, Cassius, Brutus, Portia, Antony. 
Give act and scene. 

7 Give at least three estimates each of Caesar and 

Brutus from the mouths of others. Give act 
and scene. 

III Home reading — Coriolaniis. 

1 Write in the classroom the story of the play. 

2 Give the theme. 

3 State the place of Coriolaniis in Roman history. 

4 State the importance of the domestic, or Family 

thread in the play. 

5 From Volumnia give two quotations showing 

strength ; two from Coriolanus. 

6 Why do both of these plays open with The 

People? 



206 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Suggestive Topics for Essays and Discussion 

1 The People in the play. 

2 The Supernatural in the play. 

3 Portia and Calpurnia. 

4 Cassius and the conspiracy. 

5 Caesar in the play. 

6 The Csesar of history, and Shakespeare's Caesar. 

7 Brutus the Sphinx of the play. 

8 Csesar the patriot. 

9 Brutus and Cassius as patriots. 

10 Antony as a patriot. 

11 Portia the woman. 

12 The word Honor in the play. 

13 The word Spirit in the play. 

14 The Man Antony, compared with the Man 
Brutus. 

15 Calpurnia's and Caesar's superstitions. 

16 Brutus as an orator compared with Antony. 

17 Lepidus — his character and dramatic purpose in 
the drama. 

18 Caesar's treatment of his enemies. 

19 Caesar's attitude toward the people. 

20 The elements of the drama of Julius Caesar 
which make it so popular. 

21 Quarrel between Cassius and Brutus. 

22 Brutus's inconsistencies. 

22f The significance of the assassination of political 
leaders. 

24 xAn estimate of the drama Julius Ccesar, 



20^ MOTES 



NOTES 209 



MACBETH 

Sidelights 

some features of the play 

This drama was probably written about 1606. It 
•breathes forth the atmosphere of Scotland. Possibly the 
spirit of the times suggested to Shakespeare the writing 
of this his only Scottish play ; the crowns of England 
and Scotland had recently been united in James I. The 
mutilated condition of the text as it appeared first in 
the folio of 1623, doubtless accounts for some apparent 
faults in the artistic work of the drama. 

Dramatic Action. The dramatic action is so rapid 
that although the play contains so much, it is one of the 
shortest written by Shakespeare*; it contains only 2,109 
lines, while Hamlet contains 3,930. The interest so 
centers in Macbeth and Lady Macbeth that it almost 
seems a play of but two characters ; and yet in the first 
or vital act Macbeth speaks only 26 times, and in all but 
878 words. Lady Macbeth speaks only 14 times, 864 
words in all. In the entire play she speaks less than 60 
times and Macbeth less than 150; many of these speeches 
are very short, sometimes consisting of only a word. We 
marvel at the ability which develops two of the most 
wonderful characters in all literature in so short a space. 

*The Comedy of Errors is the shortest play, consisting of 1,778 
lines. (Globe Edition.) 

210 



MACBETH 211 

Classification. This drama has so stroni^ a historical 
background that at first one is ahnost inchned to classify 
it as Historical, but the treatment is purely diat of Ideal 
Tragedy, which takes it out of the realm of history. 

Source of Plot. For his historical material, as in his 
English plays, Shakespeare draws upon Holinshed. As 
the story is given in most of the school editions of the 
play, we will not repeat it here. The poet's handling of 
his material is a constant source of wonderment and 
admiration. What action he puts into every dry bone ; 
what dramatic life into every character, until the effect 
of the whole seems nothing short of electrical ! 

SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE 

The Subjective is that which originates in the mind 
and works outward to the object. The Objective is 
that whicli first appeals to the mind from without ; the 
mind gets its first conception from the object. 

The idea of the cotton gin originated in the mind of 
Eli Whitney ; to him it was at first simply a mental 
picture. From this mental picture he modeled his 
machine and others saw the object; their first mental 
conception of the machine was received from the object, 
the mind was first appealed to from without. To Whit- 
ney the idea of the cotton gin was subjective : to others 
it was objective. The purely subjective is seen with the 
mental eye only; the objective is seen with the physical 
eye. 

An idea prevails of a spiritual realm peopled with 
two classes of beings called angels— those whose exist- 



212 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA i 

ence has always been confined to the spiritual world, 
and the spirits of those who have once occupied bodies 
in this life. When these disembodied spirits again mani- 
fest themselves, they are called ghosts. The subjective 
ghost is simply the disembodied spirit ; its only existence 
is in the mind of the beholder; to Brutus, the Ghost of 
Caesar was simply a vivid mental conception. In the 
superstitious age a belief prevailed that the disembodied 
spirit could again assume the body and become visible to 
the physical eye; this re-embodied spirit was an objective 
ghost. The belief also prevailed that while this objective 
ghost might be seen by anyone, it would speak only to 
the learned or to those for whom it had a special 
message. 

THE SUPERNATURAL ELEMENT 

Hamlet and Macbeth are Shakespeare's only Ideal 
Tragedies — that is, the only tragedies in which the 
supernatural enters as an element by which "to express 
and develop the motives of the tragic individual." It is 
only in these dramas that the supernatural is objective. 
The disembodied spirit of the murdered King Hamlet 
again assumes the body, and the guards and Horatio 
see the ghost walking, but it has no message for them, 
it will speak only to the wronged son. Banquo says to 
the witches, ''To me you speak not," although before 
they disappear they drop the word which rankles in the 
heart of Macbeth until it sends Banquo to his death. 

The drama of Macbeth is dominated by the super- 
natural from the very beginning until in the second 
movement Macbeth parts from the Weird Sisters with a 



MACBETH 218 

curse; in fact, the conflict seems to be between the 
natural and the supernatural elements — the real and the 
ideal — so much so that they may be considered the two 
th eads of the play. 

Superstitions of the Times. We can get but little 
idea of the true significance of this play without making 
a special study of this supernatural element. Wc must 
bear in mind that when this drama was written the 
English as well as the Scottish people still believed in all 
sorts of supernatural manifestations. They believed that 
evil spirits caused storms at sea and convulsions of 
nature on land; that they took possession of human 
beings and caused them to commit crimes and destroy 
the peace of families. If Queen Elizabeth's stomach did 
not behave well and kept her avv^ake at nio:ht, it was 
because she had fallen under the spell of witchcraft. 
King James was so firm a believer in this form of 
superstition that he wrote ''A Textbook of Witchcraft 
and Its Developments," and before he came to the throne 
of England he had caused no less than six hundred 
old women to be burned as witches. Witches were sup- 
posed to guide the afifairs of men; they were often pic- 
tured as inhuman hags, brewing all sorts of hideous 
mixtures in hellish cauldrons. And so when Shakespeare 
introduces this form of the supernatural in Macbeth, he 
is only making the play more efifective by the use of the 
common superstitions of the times. 

Weird Sisters. At its very opening, the play is 
thrown under the spell of the Weird Sisters. In a desert 
place, with the elements of nature in commotion, they 



214 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

meet to sound the keynote of the drama ; to announce 
that their next meeting will be to meet Macbeth upon 
the heath. 

When the battle's lost and won. . . . 
Fair is foul, and foul is fair. 

To Banquo the Weird Sisters are only objective. To 
Macbeth they are subjective as well as objective ; he 
already has them within himself. His first words in the 
play, just as he is about to meet the witches on the 
heath, 

So foul and fair a day I have not seen, 

indicate his kinship with them. They do not drop the 
seeds of temptation into his mind, but only start into 
active life what is already there ; these evil creatures are 
only typical of the nest of vipers which Macbeth is 
nursing to life in his own breast. 

They met me in the day of success ; 

having crushed a rebellion, he is possessed by an unholy 
ambition, and becomes a rebel at heart. The thought of 
wearing the crown is by no means new to him ; the 
Weird Sisters make the possibility a reality. The mur- 
der of Duncan will hasten kingship; the resolution is 
taken and the plan laid. While waiting for the bell to 
call him to the deed (Act ii, Scene i), he sees a dagger 
with the handle toward him ; he denies its reality and 
muses : 

Now o'er the one half world 
Nature seems dead, and wicked dreams abuse 
The curtained sleep ; witchcraft celebrates 
Pale Hecate's offerings. 



MACBETH 215 

Hecate. The appearance of Hecate, the queen of the 
witches, has caused much critical comment ; by some it is 
considered quite unnecessary, while others go so far as 
to say that this feature of the play cannot be Shake- 
speare's own work. Since the critics dififer so widely in 
their views and interpretations, we may be allowed to 
interpret for ourselves. 

The first mention of Hecate in the play is made by 
Macbeth himself. In the speech from which we quote 
above he first suggests her existence. When he has a 
moment's pause, his thoughts turn to the witches ; but 
now that he has kingship in view, Hecate, queen of the 
witches, naturally appeals to his soul. Again in Act iii. 
Scene 2, he refers to her : 

O, full of scorpions is my mind, dear wife! 
Thou know'st that Banquo. and his Fleance. live. 

* ♦ ♦ 

There's comfort yet ; they are assailable. 

♦ ♦ * 

Ere to black Hecate's summons 
The shard-borne beetle with his drowsy hums 
Hath rung night's yawning peal, there shall be done 
A deed of dreadful note. 
Here again, when he sees a possible future obstacle, with 
murder in his heart, his mind calls up the queen of the 
witches. Has not Macbeth himself prepared us for her 
appearance at the next meeting of these uncanny 
creatures? Has she a mission? First she chides them 
for daring 

To trade and traffic with Macbeth 
In riddles and affairs of death, 
without calling upon her. Then mark her words, 



^16 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

And, which is worse, all you have done 
Hath been but for a wayward son, 
Spiteful and wrathful ; who, as others do, 
Loves for his own ends, not for you. 

Here she gives Macbeth his place ; she proclaims him a 
son, one of themselves. What could be more definite? 
She it is who foresees his next coming and plans for it ; 
she charges them to be ready with their vessels and 
charms, for on the following day he will come to know 
his destiny. Then she will away to prepare for the greav 
business of the morrow, to raise such artificial sprites 

As by the strength of their illusion 
Shall draw him on to his confusion. 
He shall spurn fate, scorn death, and bear 
His hopes 'bove wisdom, grace, and fear; 
And, you all know, security 
Is mortals' chiefest enemy. 

Hecate it is who, as Queen of Evil, plans Macbeth's final 
destruction ; she gives the keynote to the announcements 
made by the apparitions as they rise one after the other 
from the cauldron, all of which only tend to make him 
feel secure, a fact that indeed proves 4iis chiefest enemy. 
How perfectly Macbeth recognizes the spirits of dark- 
ness when he addresses them as "secret, black, and mid- 
night hags," and asks them what they do ; and how truly 
they echo back his own black heart when they make 
reply, 

A deed without a name.- 

Having been made to feel secure, Macbeth still will 
not be satisfied until he has an answer to his question, 



MACBETH 217 

Shall Banquo's issue ever 
Reign in this kingdom ? 

and when they bid him "seek to know no more," and he 
persists, they show him that which they predict will 
grieve his heart, and the apparition of eight kings with 
Banquo's ghost following passes before his horrified 
eyes. He would still be reassured, and asks, "What, is 
this so?" Whereupon they assure him that it is, and 
with a dance vanish in air with Hecate. How in the 
dance they deride him as they disappear, making further 
questioning impossible ! Macbeth has been drawn on to 
his confusion, has been doomed to work out his own 
complete destruction by Hecate and her subjects ; and 
now leaving him to himself, having accomplished their 
work, they vanish to appear no more. Can we feel that 
Hecate is an accident, that she has no dramatic purpose 
in this wonderful drama which is based upon the realm 
of blackest darkness of which she is queen? 

Some have thought the contents of the cauldron too 
hellish for Shakespeare's work ; but are they any blacker 
than the heart which, not satisfied with the blood already 
shed, finding that Macduff has fled to England, will 

give to the edge of the sword 
His wife, his babes, and all unfortunate souls 
That trace him in his line. No boasting like a fool ; 
This deed I'll do before this purpose cool. 
But no more sights ! 

He now has the contents of the cauldron all within 
his own black heart ; he can without hesitation take the 
life-blood of innocent women and babes, and needs no 



218 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

longer call upon the demons of darkness for informati 
or for help. 

THE PORTER 

Not only Hecate, but the maudlin, half-drunken 
Porter, has been criticised as a character unworthy of 
Shakespeare, and quite out of place in the play. But 
there's method in the Porter. Though he does not com- 
prehend the situation in his mind, he seems to realize it 
intuitively in his soul, as he seems to fancy himself 
porter at hell-gate, and that he is to admit to the ever- 
lasting bonfire one ''who committed treason enough for 
God's sake, yet could not equivocate to heaven." Now 
between the time of the first knocking and the entrance 
of Macduff and Lenox it is necessary that Macbeth and 
his wife shall have time to cleanse themselves of the 
evidence of their guilt ; they must wash off their blood 
stains and undress ; Lady Macbeth says to her husband : 

Get on your nightgown, lest occasion call us 
And show us to be watchers. 

The Porter must be a half-witted fellow who was slow 
to act ; had he been bright and wideawake, attending 
promptly to his business, the visitors would have been 
admitted long before the evidence of guilt could be 
washed away or concealed, and the drama must have 
ended. Has not, then, the foolish Porter a decided 
dramatic purpose? 

THEME 

Every great deed brings with it a great responsibility 
and a great temptation which the doer of the deed must 



MACBETH 219 

meet. If the man is greater than his deed, he comes out 
a hero ; if the deed is too great for the man, he yields to 
the temptation, his course is downward, and, unless 
arrested, Nemesis follows him until his end is that of a 
tragic individual. Macbeth's deed is greater than the 
man, and he cannot withstand the temptation. A laud- 
able deed has implanted an unlaudable ambition ; he says : 

I have no spur 
To prick the sides of my intent, but only 
Vaulting ambition, which o'erleaps itself 
And falls on the other. 

Subjective conflicts he has, it is true, but they are 
prompted by fear of the evil that may result rather than 
by his love of the good — 

That but this blow 
Might be the be-all and the end-all. Here, , 

But here, upon this bank and school of time, 
We'd jump the life to come. 

While haunted by the ghost of Banquo, his words declare 
that he is a man so bold as to "dare look on that which 
might appal the devil." He reaches his climax and is 
given over to the spirit of evil, and declares : 

I will to-morrow 
And betimes I will, to the weird sisters: 
More shall they speak ; for now I am bent to know, 
By the worst means, the worst. 

And thus we see in Macbeth a noble though morally 
weak character, wrecked by an unholy ambition and 
])ride. 

Dowden calls this "the tragedy of the twilight and 
the setting in of thick darkness upon a human soul." 



220 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

BASIS OF THE DRAMA 

Basis of Action. Before the play opens, Macbeth has 
performed a worth}^ deed and an unholy ambition has 
been implanted in his heart; this forms a basis for the 
dram.a. The ambition is still shadowy in the mind of 
Macbeth ; he must have something to give it definiteness. 
This is the mission of the Weird Sisters. They meet him 
in the day of success and foretell his future greatness, 
and the thought begins to take form and gives him a 
basis of action. He at once informs Lady Macbeth, and 
with her thought immediately takes the form of action; 
there is no hesitancy here, and the action of the drama 
starts with full force. The foul deed is done, and the 
harmony of the Ethical World is disturbed. The deed 
contains within itself the elements of death ; harmony 
must be restored either through the repentance of the 
doer of the evil deed, or he must move on to destruction. 
When brought face to face with his deed and contem- 
plating further action, Macbeth is ready to call upon the 
powers of darkness — 

I will to-morrow 
(And betimes I will) to the weird sisters: 
More shall they speak : for now I am bent to know. 
By the worst means the worst, for mine own good, 
All causes shall give way. I am in blood 
Stept in so far, that, should I wade no more, 
Returning were as tedious as go o'er. 

Nemesis. And so he madly rushes on to his death ; 
and the law of Tragedy, which declares that man must 
live in accord with the Ethical World or perish, is satis- 



MACBETH 221 

fied. Harmony is restored to the State in the person of 
Alalcohn, the rightful claimant of the crown. Thus the 
drama, which is Tragedy for the individual, results in 
Comedy for the State. 

STRUCTURE* 

One who has studied the foregoing plays should now 
be able to trace the structure of a Shakespearean drama. 
A few hints upon this play have already been given. 
The movements, Guilt and Retribution, are not difficult. 
The supernatural thread is easily traced. The second 
thread, that of the natural world, at first thought seems 
a little involved. 

Second Thread. Before the play opens, an heroic 
and laudable deed has been done. Macbeth is the hero. 
Aided by Banquo, he has put down a rebellion ; he has 
seen retribution follow the rebel. He is a man of 
courage and of action ; he is stronger than the weak 
King whom he serves, but he is not greater than his 
deed ; having crushed a rebel, he in turn becomes a 
rebel, and an unholy ambition takes possession of his 
soul ; he is ready to respond to the witches : 

So foul and fair a day I have not seen. 

The crown of Scotland was elective within the 
hereditary nobility. Macbeth is first cousin to Duncan 
and as near the throne by blood as he. Are not his 
claims as strong by blood, and by right of manhood 
stronger ? The thought of kingship is not new to him ; 



■See Snlder's Commentary on Macbeth. 



222 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

he has thought that at least he may be made Prince of 
Cumberland, that is Crownprince. 

Two Strands. In tracing the second thread, that of 
the natural world, we see that it starts in this heroic 
deed with two strands: first the temptation which the 
great act brings with it, and secondly, opposed to this^ 
the penalty, or retribution as shown in the fate of the 
Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth must believe in both; we 
see how he yields to the first, and as a necessary conse- 
quence works out the second. He is by his very nature 
a man of action ; he says : ''The very firstlings of my 
heart shall be the firstlings of my hand." The reflective 
Hamlet could never, like Macbeth, have so rushed on to 
blood. 

'Tis true, that not being yet entirely given over to 
the Evil One, Macbeth pauses a moment; the subjective 
conflict begins: 

If chance will have me king, why, chance may crown me. 

But he has not the moral courage to follow the prompt- 
ings of his better nature. 

The first strand of this thread of the natural world 
consists of the deed which involves Macbeth, Lady 
Macbeth, and indirectly Banquo. Note that Fleance 
scarcely appears as an active character in the play ; he 
speaks only twice, and then of a matter of no importance. 
Still, Fleance forbodes trouble. The second strand, the 
retribution, involves Duncan, as the victim, and the other 
characters are easily traced. With these suggestions the 
threads should be fully traced and the action worked out 
through the movements. 



MACBETH 223 

Class Study 

REVIEW 

1 Define Tragedy. State its law. 

2 Define Ideal Tragedy. 

3 Define Ethics. 

4 Explain the term Ethical World. 

5 Give the principles of Shakespeare's Ethical 
World. 

6 Show how these points apply to this drama. 

THE PLAY 

1 Where is the scene of the play laid? 

2 Make a map of Scotland showing the scene of 
the tragedy.* 

3 Give the historical basis of the plot. 

4 With what class of society does the play deal ? 

5 What is the ethical basis of the drama? 

6 What is the basis of the action? 

7 In this drama, how is the harmony of the Ethical 
World disturbed? How restored? How is harmony 
restored to the State? 

8 Why does the drama open on a desolate, barren 
heath, with nature in commotion? 

9 Time analysis. Mr. Daniel gives: "Time of the 
play, nine days represented on the stage, and intervals. 
See if you can trace them. 

lo Give a name or title to each act. 



*An exccllrnt ono is piveu in Marhitli <.f tli'- Silver srrios of 
English Classics, Silver, Bui'dett & Co. 



224 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA^ 

SUPERNATURAL ELEMENTS 
First Movement — Guilt 

(a) The Weird Sisters: the tempters. 

1 What is the dramatic purpose of the opening 
scene? Why not leave it out and first introduce the 
reader and the audience to the witches in Scene 3, when 
the hags first appear to Macbeth and Banquo? 

2 What is the significance of the witches' closing 
speech ? 

3 How do you interpret their conversation in 
Scene 3, before Macbeth and Banquo appear? 

4 Can you see any reason for making the witches 
sexless ? 

5 Banquo sees them first and addresses them, but 
they do not speak until Macbeth questions them. Why 
do they not reply to Banquo? 

6 What is their mission in this first movement 
which drives Macbeth to guilt? What office do they 
perform ? 

7 At what time in Macbeth's career do they appear 
to him? 

8 What is the effect of their visitation? 

9 When they vanish, what is Macbeth's attitude 
toward them ? How does Banquo regard them ? 

(b) The Dagger. 

1 When does Macbeth see the air-drawn dagger? 
Why does he see it? 

2 How is he affected by it? 

3 How does he interpret it? 



MACBETH 225 

4 Is there any particular significance in his refer- 
ence to Hecate at this point? 

5 What is the dramatic purpose of the dagger? 

(c) The Ghost. 

1 At what point in Macbeth 's career does he see 
ghosts ? 

2 Why is he not haunted by the ghost of Duncan 
as well as by that of Banquo? 

3 Why does Banquo's ghost appear a second time? 
Is it subjective or objective? 

4 How is Macbeth aiTected by it? 

5 Is there any dramatic purpose in having this 
manifestation at the banquet in the presence of the 
nobility ? 

6 Do you think Macbeth betrays his guilt? 

(d) Nature, omens, etc. 

1 Make a list of the disturbances of nature, in this 
movement, stating when they occur and by whom they 
are mentioned. 

2 Make a list of the birds of omen, stating by 
whom mentioned and when. 

3 In what connection and by whom is the owl 
mentioned ? 

4 What is the dramatic purpose of Scene i. Act 
II? Why does the Old Man appear? 

5 Do you see any special significance in Duncan's 
horses ? 

6 Give any other superstitious allusions. 



226 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Second Movement — Retribution 

1 This movement is introduced by Hecate's appear- 
ance, Act III, Scene 5 ; then follows the cavern scene, 
Act IV, Scene i. The first Movement is introduced by 
the witch scene. Act i. Scene i ; in Scene 3 the witches 
again appear and have their conversation before Macbeth 
and Banquo arrive. Can you trace any similarity of 
method in these scenes in the two movements? 

2 Compare the introductory conversation of the 
witches in the two scenes ; can you see any reason why 
the second is so much more fiendish than the first? 

3 The witches' first meeting with Macbeth was on 
a desolate, barren heath, their second in a cavern. Why? 

4 What is the significance and dramatic purpose of 
Hecate? Is she an avenger? How will she punish 
Macbeth? When and by whom is she first mentioned in 
the play? 

5 Give her plan. Does she utter any words of 
truth ? 

6 Can you see any dramatic purpose in the hellish 
contents of the cauldron? 

7 Make a list of its contents, the animals men- 
tioned in a separate list. 

8 Is there any significance in the mention of the 
Jew, Turk, Tartar and "birth-strangled babe"? 

9 Interpret the apparitions : First, "An armed 
head"; secondly, "A bloody child"; thirdly, "A child 
crowned, with a tree in his hand." 

10 At this point in Macbeth's career he dares defy 
these fiendish creatures.. Why? 



MACBETH 227 

11 Why is he so horrified at the show of Kings? 

12 Some interpret the hnes 

Some I see 
That two-fold balls and treble scepters carry, 

as referring to the union of the English and Scottish 
crowns and the subjugation of Ireland. Can you see any 
reason for this interpretation? 

13 Why do the witches deride Macbeth at the last? 
Why is this their last appearance? 

14 Why does the supernatural element drop out of 
the play entirely at this point? 

General Questions 

1 Why do the Weird Sisters or subjects in the 
witch-world lead in the temptation to Guilt in the first 
movement, while Hecate the Queen plans the Retribu- 
tion in the second? 

2 Trace the course of the Weird Sisters consecu- 
tively through the play as a dramatic element. 

3 How does this element add to the interest of the 
play? Suppose it w^ere left out, and Macbeth were 
influenced and impelled simply by natural impulses, what 
would be the effect upon the play? 

CHARACTERIZATION 

/ Macbeth 

First Movement 

I In this movement, from first to last, Macbeth is 
under the spell of the supernatural. He responds to the 



228 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

witches; not satisfied with what they tell him, he asks 
for more. When they have vanished he says : ''Would 
they h.ad stayed." He sees the air-drawn dagger. He 
hears the voice cry: "Sleep no more, Macbeth does 
murther sleep"; "Macbeth shall sleep no more." To him 
the ghost of Banquo appears. Why is this? Is it due 
to any natural characteristic of heart or mind? 

2 Macbeth calls the witches Weird Sisters ; they 
call themselves Weird Sisters ; otherwise they are spoken 
of as witches. Can you see any significance in this? 

3 Why does he so immediately respond to the 
Weird Sisters ? In what lies the secret of their influence 
over him? 

4 Had Macbeth any claim to the Scottish crown? 
Is the thought of the murder of Duncan new to him ? 

5 Interpret his speech (aside) beginning, "Two 
truths are told." (Act i. Scene 3.) 

6 'Tf chance will have me king, why, chance may 
crown me, without my stir." What subjective conflict^ 
is he having? 

7 What obstacles does he see lying in his way to 
the crown? 

Yet let that be 
Which the eye fears, when il; is done, to see. 

Interpret. Does the time come when he is afraid to 
think what he has done and does not dare "look on't 
again"? 

8 Why does he hasten to confide the news to Lady 
Macbeth by letter, instead of waiting to tell her when he 
is to see her so soon? Do you see any dramatic purpose 
in this? 



MACBETH 229 

9 Does the promise of the crown at all imply the 
necessity of the murder of the king? 

10 What are his arguments against committing the 
deed? What does he acknowledge to be his only cause? 

11 How does he argue with Lady Macbeth? 

12 Give the steps in his subjective conflict, from his 
first meeting with the Weird Sisters until Macdufif and 
Lenox enter after the murder. Does he in any way 
hold the Weird Sisters responsible for what he does? 

13 Having performed a laudable deed, why does he 
yield to this black temptation instead of responding to 
Duncan's spirit of love and gratitude? 

14 In Act II, Scene 2, where is Macbeth wlien he 
calls ''Who's there? What, ho!" Why does he call? 
Is it before or -after he has committed the deed? 

15 Would he have committed the deed had it not 
been for Lady Macbeth? 

16 Is his subjective conflict caused by remorse or 
fear of consequences? If the latter, w^ould you call it 
conscience? 

17 "Wake Duncan with thy knocking! I would 
thou couldst!" Is Macbeth sincere? 

18 In Act II, Scenes 2 and 3, compare Macbeth and 
Lady Macbeth. 

9 When, Lady Macbeth calls for help, how does 
Alacbeth respond? How do you account for his indif- 
ference ? 

20 Can you see that at the banquet Macbeth calls 
up the spirit of Banquo both times that it appears ? 

21 Seated upon the throne with but little opposition, 
whv does Macbeth not rest? 



1 



230 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

There's not a one of them but in his house 
I keep a servant fee'd. 

Explain. What state of mind does this show? 
Second Movement 

1 At the opening of the play or first movement 
which develops guilt, the Weird Sisters met Macbeth in 
the day of his success. He has now all that they prom- 
ised, he is King, with seemingly but little opposition. 
Banquo is dead ; Fleance has not been heard from ; 
Duncan's sons have exiled themselves. But Macduff, 
the powerful Thane "of Fife, refuses to respond to his 
bidding, at least Macbeth hears so. The King's peace 
of mind is disturbed ; he resolves to consult the Weird 
Sisters, and the second Movement, Retribution, begins. 

Evidently the first meeting with these creatures of 
darkness is objective; that is, it comes to him from 
without, he does not consciously will it, although he has 
that within which responds to their call. The second is 
subjective ; the thought originates in his mind, the inter- 
view is of his own seeking. Why? » 

2 How does Macbeth know where to find the 
Weird Sisters? 

3 He visits them in their cavern. When the inter- 
view closes they vanish. He says : "Where have they 
gone ?" Evidently hearing some one, he calls : "Come 
in, without there!" and Lenox enters. Macbeth is sure 
Lenox must have seen them as they passed, but, "No, 
indeed, my lord." Where is Macbeth? 

4 What point in his mental career has Macbeth 
reached when he can give utterance to the following? — 



MACBETH 231 

I am in blood 
Stepp'd in so far. that, should T wade no more. 
Returning were as tedious as go o'er. 

5 In this final interview, what are the two prophe- 
cies which finally, 

By the strength of their illusion 

. . . draw him on to his confusion? 

6 When the prophecies of the Weird Sisters accord 
with Macbeth's desires, what is his attitude toward 
them? When contrary to his desires, what does he do? 

7 Compare the two interviews. What docs the 
first predict? What the second? 

8 When and why does he discard the Weird 
Sisters altogether? Has he made his own witch-world? 

9 After the final interview he hears no more voices, 
he sees no ghosts, the supernatural world seems to have 
lost its hold upon him. Why? 

10 After the interview what does he do? 

11 Compare his attitude toward Lady Macbeth in 
the second movement with that in the first. How is he 
afifected by her death? 

12 Why does he murder Lady Macdufif and her 
children? Does he give a reason? 

13 At what point in his career does he resolve to 
murder them? 

14 Is the rebelHon against him a natural outcome of 
his course of conduct? From an ethical standpoint show 
how it must follow. 

15 In what does he put confidence at last? 



232 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

i6 Why does the news of the Queen's death come 
in conjunction with the news of the approaching army? 

17 How is he affected by the news that "Birnam 
wood now is moving"? 

18 What does he mean by ''they have tied me to a 
stake"? Who has tied him? 

19 Does he fear Macduff? 

20 Does Macbeth reach a point where he defies 
retribution? What is the spiritual condition of a man 
who reaches this point? 

21 Is there any ethical reason why Macbeth should 
come to his death at the hands of Macduff? 

22 Show in Macbeth's case how the deed returns 
upon the doer and the law of Tragedy is fulfilled. 

General Questions 

1 Trace Macbeth's career and his subjective con- 
flicts through the first movement and through the second 
and compare. 

2 Is he suspected of the murder of Duncan? If 
you think so, give your proof. 

3 Is he suspected of the murder of Banquo? 

4 He is willing to use the murderers for his own 
purposes; at the same time in what catalogue does he 
class them? 

5 Make a list of the murders committed by Mac- 
beth, which take place in the presence of the audience. 
Why are not Duncan and the grooms murdered on the 
stage ? 

6 He "murthers sleep." Is he guilty of any other 
subjective murders? 



MACBETH 233 

7 What is Macbeth's philosophy of hfe and death? 
References: Act i, Scene 7; Act 11, Scene 3; Act iii, 
Scene 2 ; Act v, Scenes 3 and 5. 

8 What is the lesson of Macbeth's life and death? 

9 Which shows the greater affection the one for 
the other, Macbeth or Lady Macbeth? 

10 Make a list of the times Macbeth uses the word 
fear or alludes to fear in the play. 

1 1 How many times does he use the word hlood or 
hloodyf 

12 How many times is the word used by Lady 
Macbeth? How many by others? 

// Lady Macbeth 
First Movement 

1 We are first introduced to Lady Macbeth reading 
the letter from her husband. In her remarks, how does 
she interpret him, and what does she determine to do? 

2 From this can you determine her function or 
dramatic purpose in the play? Dramatically, in what 
relation does she stand to Macbeth and the Weird 
Sisters ? 

3 The Weird Sisters are not objective to Lady 
Macbeth ; that is, she does not see them physically as 
Macbeth does. Are they subjective? Are they within 
her? 

4 Does she work in conjunction with them or in 
opposition to them? 

5 Her first speech, as a keynote to her character, 
indicates what? 



234 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

6 In her next soliloquy, upon what spirits does she 
call? When she would unsex herself what does she 
really become? 

7 Interpret her greeting of Macbeth. 

8 How does Macbeth greet her? Compare. 

9 What responsibility does Lady Macbeth crave? 

10 Has she a conscience? 

11 Compare Macbeth's first greeting of his wife 
with the speech beginning, "Bring forth men-children 
only." Is there any change in his attitude toward her? 
In the last speech do you think he shows real admiration 
for her? 

12 Does she show courage? If so, what kind? At 
what point does she begin to show nervousness? When 
does she first use an endearing term for Macbeth? 

13 How does she bear herself after the deed has 
been committed? 

14 Macduff says: "Our royal master's murdered," 
and Lady Macbeth replies : "Woe, alas ! What, in our 
house"? Interpret. 

15 How do you account for her fainting and having 
to be carried out? 

16 She next appears when Macbeth is planning the 
murder of Banquo. Does she comprehend him? Why 
does he not, as before, seek her aid in his plans? 

ly What characteristics does she show in the ban- 
quet scene? Compare with the "knocking at the gate" 
scene. Does she know of Banquo's murder? 

18 Why, the first time that Macbeth sees the ghost, 
does she quiet the guests and urge them to sit, and the 
second time urge them to go? 



MACBETH 235 

19 When Macbeth decides to visit the Weird 
Sisters, and discusses his crime, how does she meet him? 

20 Compare her attitude toward Macbeth before 
and after the murder. 

21 By the close of the first movement do you notice 
any softening of her nature? 

Second Movement 

1 Lady Macbeth has no active part in this move- 
ment ; can you explain why she so suddenly drops out ? 

2 What dramatic purpose does she serve in Act v? 

3 Why does the Gentlewoman refuse to tell the 
doctor what Lady Macbeth says in her night-walking? 

4 What has brought Lady Macbeth into this con- 
dition? 

5 Give the points which she is evidently reviewing 
in her mind. 

6 Is there any evidence that she is implicated in 
any of the murders except that of Duncan ? 

7 Compare Lady IMacbeth after the murder of 
Duncan with herself before the murder. 

8 Scene i, Act v, is called the "night-walking 
scene." Name it from Lady Macbeth's mental condi- 
tion ; what does it portray ? 

General Questions 

1 Make lists of Lady Macbeth's characteristics as 
shown before and after the murder, placing the strongest 
first. 

2 In preparation for her bloody work. Lady Mac- 



236 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

beth calls upon the spirits to unsex her ; here she murders 
her womanhood. Complete the list of these subjective 
murders. 

3 From the characteristics shown in the first move- 
ment, would you expect Lady Macbeth to break down 
unto death as she does at the last? Why does Shake- 
speare make her do so? 

4 Does Lady Macbeth truly repent ? If so, why is 
she not saved? Do you find any evidence of conscience 
conflict ? 

5 From an ethical standpoint, what brings her to 
her tragic end? Is it love for her husband, or ambition 
for herself, or what is it? What do you think of her as 
a wife? 

6 Show in Lady Macbeth's case how the deed 
returns upon the doer, 'and the law of Tragedy is ful- 
filled. 

7 What is the first really womanly expression that 
Lady Macbeth utters? 

8 Does she take her own life? Is there any evi- 
dence ? 

/// Banquo 

1 What is Banquo's first impression of the witches ? 
He sees them, hence they are objective; are they sub- 
jective also? 

2 What is his attitude toward them? Is he quite 
sure himself? Discuss his speech beginning, "Good Sir, 
why do you start"? 

3 Interpret their message, ''Lesser than Macbeth," 
etc. 



MACBETH 237 

4 Interpret his speech, 'That trusted home." etc. 
Do you see any evidence that Banquo thinks the message 
of the Weird Sisters may tempt Macbeth to crime? 

5 A heavy summons lies like lead upon me, 
And yet I could not sleep. Merciful powers, 
Restrain in me the cursed thoughts that nature 
Gives v^^ay to in repose ! 

What cursed thoughts? Why does he dream of the 
witches ?♦ 

6 Act III, Scene i : Does Banquo suspect Mac- 
beth 's guilt? What is his attitude now toward the 
witches ? What does he mean by, "But hush ! no more" ? 

7 Is it a natural thing for a man to use his last 
hour before a royal banquet for a ride? What is the 
dramatic purpose of Banquo's ride? 

8 In Act III, Scene 3, why introduce the Third 
Murderer? Some think it is Macbeth himself. Do you 
see any evidence? If so, is he recognized by the others, 
and is there a dramatic purpose in it? 

9 What is the dramatic purpose in having Fleance 
escape ? 

10 From the ethical standpoint of Tragedy, can you 
see why Banquo should come to this tragic end? Of 
what has he been guilty? 

11 Had he conquered the cursed thoughts to which 
he referred in Act 11, Scene i ? 

12 If we know that a crime has been committed, are 
we held accountable if we take no steps to expose it? 

13 Discuss sins of omission and sins of commission. 



238 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

General Questions 

1 Is it wise of Malcolm and Donalbain to flee the 
country ? 

2 In Act IV, Scene 3, what is the object of the 
conversation between the doctor, Malcolm and Macduff 
just before Ross enters? 

3 What is Macduff's greatest inspiration to lead 
an army against Macbeth? 

4 What dramatic purpose does Ross play? Does 
he seem to have any especial mission? 

5 Is the play relieved by any trace of sweetness, or 
charms of nature, any traces of humor or of religion? 
Find the word angel. How many times does it occur? 

6 Compare the night of the murder with the night 
before the assassination of Caesar. 

7 Compare the motives for the killing of Caesar 
and the killing of Duncan. 

8 By whom is the institution of the Family repre- 
sented in this play? Compare the domestic relations of 
the families of Brutus and Macbeth. 

9 Compare Macbeth and Lady . Macbeth with 
Brutus and Portia. 

10 What is the moral lesson of the drama? 

SCHEME FOR OUTLINE BOOK 

I The Drama. 

1 Define Tragedy. State its law. 

2 Define Real and Ideal Tragedy. 

3 Define Ethics. Explain the term Ethical World. 



MACBETH 239 

4 Give the principles of Shakespeare's Ethical 
World and show how this drama illustrates 
them. (See pages 23, 103, 106.) 

II The Play. 

1 Classify, and give reasons for classification. 

2 State the basis of the plot and of the action. 

3 The first act or the Exposition may be called 

'The Temptation." Name the other acts. 

4 Work out the plot by means of a graphic illustra- 

tion. 

5 Make a diagram of the entrance and exit of 

characters. 

6 Trace the supernatural element through the play 

and show how Macbeth is influenced by it, 

7 Trace the steps in Macbeth's career of crime, 

showing how he is afifected by the murder of 
Duncan, 

8 Make lists of the characteristics of Macbeth and 

Lady Macbeth. 

9 What is the theme of the play? The moral? 

10 In the drama, how is the harmony of the Ethical 

World disturbed? How restored? How is 
harmony restored to the state? 

11 Give five quotations from Macbeth which show 

his misgivings concerning his deed. Give five 
from Lady Macbeth showing her will-power, 
and that she herself is a Weird Sister. Give 
five common sayings. 

III Home Reading. 

I Romeo and Juliet. 



240 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

2 Much Ado About Nothing. 

3 A Winter's Tale. 

4 7. Henry IV. 

' In each of these state 

1 What is the deed which causes disturbance in the 

Ethical World? Who commits it? 

2 The result of bringing the individual face to face 

with his deed. 

3 One quotation from each act of the play. 

SUGGESTIVE TOPICS FOR ESSAYS AND DISCUSSION 

1 The supernatural as an element in the play. 

2 Macbeth, his relations to the supernatural. 

3 Lady Macbeth's relation to the Weird Sisters. 

4 Banquo the Man, and his relation to the Weird 
Sisters. 

5 Macbeth the Man. 

6 Lady Macbeth the Woman. 

7 The cauldron and the apparitions. 

8 History at the time of the action of the play. 

9 History at the time of the writing of the play. 

10 Duncan, the Man, King and Victim. 

11 Macbeth and Banquo compared. 

12 Macbeth; his ambition; his deed and its effect 
upon him. 

13 Macbeth and Lady Macbeth compared. 

14 Macbeth before and after the Deed. 

15 Lady Macbeth before and after the Deed. 

16 The first and second prophecies of the Weird 
Sisters. 



MACBETH 241 

ly Blood in the play. 

1 8 Fear in the play. 

19 Sympathy for Macbeth and for Lady Macbeth. 

20 Macduff and his family. 

21 Macbeth's philosophy of life and death. 

22 The supernatural elements in Macbeth and Julius 
Cccsar compared — that is, convulsions in nature, appari- 
tions, omens, etc. 

23 The night-walking scene. 

24 The rapid action of the play. 

25 The moral lesson of the play. 

26 The merits of the play as a drama. 

2y Nemesis in the play. (Contrast the manner of 
Macbeth's death and that of Lady Macbeth.) 

28 Motives for killing Caesar and Duncan compared. 

29 Shakespeare's knowledge of animal life as 
shown in the drama of Macbeth. (Comparative allusions 
to animals and plants.) 



242 NOTES 



NOTES 243 



2U MOTES 



NOTES 245 



246 NOTES 



NOTES 247 



248 NOTES 



HAMLET 
Sidelights 

the fame of hamlet 

Not Denmark's famous astronomer Tycho Brahe, 
nor her great sculptor Thorvaldsen, nor her deservedly 
celebrated writer Hans Christian Andersen — no, not all 
combined, have contributed so much to make her world- 
renowned as her Hamlet, whose only existence is in 
Shakespeare's wonderful drama. It is safe to say that 
more has been written upon Hamlet than upon any other 
one piece of the world's literature: indeed, it has been 
stated that the Hanilct literature equals the entire litera- 
ture of some of the smaller European peoples.* 

Its Evolution. Hamlet, Shakespeare's most psycho- 
logical drama, evidently went through many changes 
before it reached its present form. Entered at the 
Stationers in 1602, it was printed in 1603, and the title- 
page of the edition of 1604 bears the words "enlarged to 
almost as much again as it was." 

Shakespeare in the Play. By this time the poet had 
reached his maturity in every sense of the term ; he had 
accumulated a competence and had settled his family in 
New Place, Stratford. He had not passed thus far 
through life free from heart sorrow: his only son, 

•See Brandes's Shakespeare. 

249 



250 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

\ 

Hamnet, died in 1596; the death of his father in 1601 

must naturally have turned his thoughts to the life 
beyond the grave. His contact with the outside world 
had disclosed life in all its phases in an age when scan- 
dals in high life were by no means rare ; he was now 
passing through the disappointing experience of all who 
have high ideals in youth, to whom the world, when they 
first step out into its activities, looks fair and trustworthy. 
To what extent his own soul-experiences, combined with 
the immoral atmosphere of his environments, may have 
caused the mental mood which gave birth to this won- 
derful reflective drama, is of course mere conjecture, but 
at the same time it is not without interest. 

This we know, that the poet is now in his most 
reflective mood; his mind is attuned to the creation of 
the reflective Hamlet. How much of his own soul- 
questionings upon purity, life, death and immortality he 
has put into this play, we may feel rather than know ; 
certain it is, we find here what we find in no other play. 
One critic says that what Shakespeare gave Hamlet of 
his own nature was its unfathomable depth. 

The Sphinx. Hamlet has been called the Sphinx of 
Literature, but its riddle has never been solved, and 
therein lies the charm ; when a riddle is solved it has 
lost its interest. The most profound minds have brought 
their keenest insight to bear upon Hamlet the Man and 
Hamlet the Drama, but they can agree only upon the 
most vital points, if indeed they agree upon these, and 
hence it is well to read with caution the criticisms which 
some even eminent critics pass upon others who differ 
from them in interpretation or methods. 



HAMLET 251 

Oivr Interest, The play -is always new ; it never 
grows old, because it grows along with us. In youth 
as we read it we feel within us the quick blood of the 
impulsive Hamlet. As we see more of life, we ourselves 
become reflective Hamlets, and we turn to the play again 
and again, and it unfolds to us its depths of the philos- 
ophy of life and immortality with an interest and a 
beauty heretofore unthought of. Helps we may have, 
and helps we may need, to enable us to delve below the 
surface and to read between the lines of this most pro- 
found of Shakespeare's dramas, and then each must solve 
the riddle for himself. 

Barrett Wendell well says : "After all, the chief 
thing is not that we should define the play, but that we 
should know it; and Hamlet is a play which everybody 
ought to know. It is surely the work in English litera- 
utre to which allusions are most constant and most 
widely intelligible."* Hence we may say : *'The play's 
the thing to study." 

POINTS OF INTEREST ABOUT THE PLAY 

Length. This is Shakespeare's longest drama. It 
contains 3,930 lines (Globe Edition) — is more than 
twice the length of the shortest play, Comedy of Errors, 
with its 1,778 lines. Of these lines Hamlet speaks 1,420, 
or more than one-third of the entire play, and almost 
three-fourths as many lines as the entire play of Mac- 
beth. Besides his aside remarks, he reflects in seven 
solilociuies, ranging in length from 12 to 58 lines each; 

♦William Shakspere, p. 251. 



252 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

he also expresses himself to others in many long 
speeches. 

Source of Plot. Suggestions for the plot of Hamlet 
are found in the legend of Hamblet in Saxo Gram- 
maticus, and in other old tragedies. The legend is 
usually given in the school editions of the play. Former 
reference to Shakespeare's use of materials renders it 
unnecessary to say more on this point here; an illustra- 
tion, however, is interesting: In the Saxon story this 
reflection is voiced upon the hasty marriage of the 
widow : "Thus it is with all the promises of women ; 
they are scattered like chaff before the wind, and pass 
away like waves of the sea. Who then will trust to a 
woman's heart, which changes as flowers shed their 
leaves, as seasons change, and as new events wipe out 
the traces of those that went before?" Shakespeare 
says: "Frailty, thy name is woman!" 

Ghost. This is the only play in which Shakespeare 
has introduced the objective ghost — that is, in which the 
disembodied spirit again assumes its body and is seen 
by those for whom it has no special message. The poet 
has taken great pains to make the Ghost objective. Act 
I contains the accumulated ghost-lore of the ages. 

National Characteristics. In Hamlet we are shown 
the manners and customs of Denmark, and have a good 
picture of life at the Danish court. The political rela- 
tions of Denmark with Norway and with England, and 
the weak condition of Poland are made clear to us. 
French thought and life are brought out in contrast with 



HAMLET 253 

German thought and Hfe: Laertes in Paris meets the 
*Mive-for-to-day" theory of Hfe, which is typically 
French ; Tolonius's advice to his son is purely worldly- 
wise ; while Hamlet's views of life, death and immor- 
tality are from the Christian German standpoint, and 
show the influence of the Reformation. 

Play-Acting. Hamlet's instructions to the players 
show Shakespeare's idea of the proper acting of a play. 
The dramatist gives some London customs of his own 
time. Theaters were closed during Lent in those days, 
and players traveled about the country, performing at 
courts and wdierever they had opportunity. Young 
people of the guilds gave dramatic entertainments which 
grew to be so popular that they became a menace to the 
profession. 

Phases of the Drama. The play itself is Ideal Trag- 
edy. When Fortinbras is called to account by his old 
uncle and immediately repents, the drama of his indi- 
vidual life becomes Comedy; mediation takes place in 
the realm of real life, where the offence has been com- 
mitted. Here is a Real Comedy within our Ideal 
Tragedy. Again the play within the play, which Hamlet 
has enacted at court, to convict the King, is Real 
Tragedy. 

Insanity. The play shows two phases of insanity. 
Hamlet's, if feigned so closely resembles that form which 
manifests itself in melancholy moods that it is studied 
by physicians as genuine. Of the insanity of Ophelia 
there is no question ; this form manifests itself in pathetic 



254 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

snatches of song, a passion for flower decorations and in 
incoherent talk, and leads finally to the poor girl's death. 

Ethical Principles. In the King we see how un- 
bridled lust and ambition drive the individual on to the 
worst crime; the voice of conscience silenced, the guilty 
individual hesitates at nothing, until finally he is caught 
in his own trap, his deed returns upon his own head, and 
he meets his tragic end. In the Queen we see how 
virtue, simply as a negative quality, is only sham, becomes 
the victim of hypocrisy and lust, and through lack of 
vital principle is overpowered and works out its own 
destruction. Again, in Ophelia we see how love and 
purity, unsupported by conscience and strength, neglect- 
ing opportunities to act, fall an easy prey to the worldly- 
wise and the schemer, cannot harmonize with their 
environments, and go out in darkness. Thus even the 
highest principles must be active ; when merely passive 
they are not self-sustaining. The soul is held just as 
strongly responsible for omission as for commission. 

In ethical elements, we find the Institutional person ; 
the Moral person ; a whole family utterly devoid of con- 
science: the mediated Institutional person, and the per- 
fectly mediated Moral person, who has fought life's 
battles and so completely overcome that he has put all 
things under his feet and risen to the heights where in 
suffering all he suffers nothing. 

THE FOREIGN ELEMENT 

Norway Represented by Fortinbras. The foreign 
element hovers over the drama from beginning to cud. 



HAMLET 255 

although Fortinbras the individual appears only twice. 
The play opens amid the din of warlike preparations 
"whose sore task does not divide the Sunday from the 
week" ; 

This sweaty haste 
Doth make the night joint-labourer with the day. 

It devolves upon Horatio, "who knows things," to 
explain the state of affairs, and we learn that the Prince 
of Norway, young Fortinbras, "of unimproved mettle 
hot and full, hath in the skirts of Norway here and there 
sharked up a list of lawless resolutes," and comes in 
warlike array against Denmark to recover certain lands 
won from his father by King Hamlet in a dared combat 
in which the elder Fortinbras was slain. There is no 
just cause for the Prince's action, however, because the 
provisions of the combat were perfectly fair to both 
sides ; according to the laws of heraldry the victor re- 
ceived the reward. 

Fortinbras in Rebellion. Norway, Fortinbras' old 
bedridden uncle, who during the minority of the young 
man is in authority, is quite ignorant of what his hot- 
headed nephew is about. Thus we see that Fortinbras, 
first, is in rebellion against his own government, and 
secondly, is hostile to Denmark without cause, since in 
making the invasion he is violating the law of compact. 
King Claudius, who always plans doubly, makes prepa- 
rations to meet Fortinbras on the field of battle, but 
meanwhile, diplomat that he is. ho sends ambassadors 
to old Norway to see if the matter cannot be settled 
peaceably. 



256 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA , 

Fortinbras Mediated. Here we see a fine stroke of 
dramatic purpose on the part of the poet. Rebel that 
the young hot-head is, we should expect that when 
called to account by the uncle he would in defiance of 
authority pursue his own course, but no — 

he, in brief, obeys, 
Receives rebuke from Norway, and in fine 
Makes vow before his uncle never more 
To give th' assay of arms against your majesty. 
Whereon old Norway, overcome with joy, 
Gives him three thousand crowns in annual fee, 

and shows such implicit faith in the young man's sin- 
cerity that he allows him to keep his armed soldiers to go 
against the Poles, and entreats the King to give the 
Prince quiet pass through Denmark on his way to 
Poland. By giving this permit Claudius, also, shows 
faith in the young man. 

Thus Fortinbras, who has caused discord in the Ethi- 
cal World by his hostility to existing peaceful conditions, 
restores harmony by his repentance ; he becomes a medi- 
ated character, and is thereby fitted to restore harmony 
to the State of Denmark by accepting her crown when 
the final grand catastrophe robs her of both King and 
Prince. We see that if Fortinbras had not repented, 
but had invaded Denmark, the King must have given 
his attention to war instead of to Hamlet, and the drama 
must have ended, or the plot have been constructed on 
an entirely different basis. 

Let us now look back a little, and see how this 
Fortinbras, who scarcely appears as a personality in the 



HAMLET 257 

play, is linked with the State, with the King, and with 
Hamlet. 

Fortinbras and the State. A king must be active, not 
a mere figurehead, or things will go wrong, as is showi: 
in the case of old Norway. The very activity of Fortin- 
bras brings him into conflict with the State of Denmark : 
his repentance restores harmony both in the Ethical 
World and in the external world, and he thus becomes 
fitted to bring peace to Denmark in the end. 

Fortinbras and the King. It is through the trouble 
with Fortinbras that the King is enabled to show his 
diplomatic statesmanship ; thus in the drama Fortinbras 
links Claudius with the affairs of State. This is the 
only instance in which the poet has shown the King in 
purely State relations ; everywhere else his acts in some 
way relate to Hamlet. 

We are first introduced to the King in the room of 
State, where he has come to give audience to three 
groups of persons — Voltimand and Cornelius, who are 
there strictly on business of State ; Laertes, who has a 
|)ersonal request to make ; and Hamlet, a member of the 
family. The King shows his businesslike mind by ad- 
dressing himself to business first ; he gives the ambassa- 
dors their commission to old Norway — 

Giving to yon no further personal power 

To business with the king more than the scope 

Of these dilated articles allow. 

They are by no means to be ministers plenijiotcntiary ; 
he will be everv inch a king. He will trv what diplomacy 



258 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

will do toward the settlement of the difficulty before 
resorting to force of arms. 

Fortinhras' and Hamlet. Fortinbras is preeminently 
an Institutional person; his spirit is primarily the spirit 
of nationality, of government, consequently he is a man 
of action; he will fight for what he beheves to be the 
rights of the State, although the gain may not be worth 
the powder spent in acquiring it. In the combat by 
which Norway lost the land, Norway lost her King, and 
Fortinbras lost his father ; Fortinbras seems not to think 
of his father, he cares only to regain the lost ground 
for the State. 

As the Institutional person whose mind is wholly 
centered upon affairs of State, and who carries this 
thought into violent actior^, Fortinbras presents a marked 
contrast to Hamlet. Denmark's King and Flamlet's 
father has been murdered ; but the lost crown is only 
a secondary consideration with Hamlet, and the murder 
of his father he can never gain the courage to revenge ; 
he cannot act. Fortinbras first appears in person to 
claim "the conveyance of a promised march" through 
Claudius's kingdom. We notice that the poet has brought 
him in just as Hamlet is about to embark for England, 
with the King still alive. His coming to Denmark at 
this time serves only to set up a glass in which Hamlet 
can see the inmost part of himself ; the Dane's soliloquy 
at this point shows how painful a reminder Fortinbras 
is of his own inaction. He here recognizes the man who 
possesses the qualities which he lacks — the active man 
of the State ; the man with the ability to govern — and he 



HAMLET 259 

boards the vessel with his mind full of bloody thoughts, 
but weary, weary of his burdens. Idic poet brings I-'ort- 
inbras back from Poland just in time to receive Hamlet's 
dying blessing upon his election to the crown of Den- 
mark, which Hamlet foresees. 

It is readily seen that this foreign element serves a 
very important dramatic purpose in the play. 

THE FAMILY INSTITUTION 

The Royal Family. In Hamlet the institution of the 
Family is represented first by the royal family, and sec- 
ondl}- by the Polonius family. Between these two fami- 
ilies there is a marked contrast. The members of the 
royal family are all guilty of crime, from the King, who 
hesitates at nothing in order to accomplish his purpose, 
to Hamlet, who acts upon the impulse of the moment 
and kills Polonii>s ; but even in the vile King the voice 
of conscience still speaks, and the Queen sees in her soul 

such black and grained spots 
As will not leave their tinct. 

Gertrude's mother-instinct has not been entirely crushed 
by her lack of moral principle ; in fact, it is her one 
redeeming trait. Hamlet is the victim of conscience. 

The Polonius Family. The Polonius family, on the 
contrary, commit no great crime ; they all make a fair 
outward showing to the world. lUit they are utterly 
devoid of true moral principle ; of conscience they have 
none. Even Polonius's advice to Laertes, which on the 
surface appears good, contains not a line which if closely 



^60 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

followed would make the young man a nobler moral 
character. From his charges to Reynaldo we may infer 
that Polonius would not be in the least shocked should 
his unwilling spy find Laertes indulging in the very vices 
of which the father suggests that Reynaldo shall accuse 
him. He can malign Hamlet, use Ophelia as a snare to 
entrap her lover, give his own daughter lessons in de- 
ceit, but conscience never gives him a prick, and he goes 
on until lack of principle works out his destruction. 

Laertes is the true son of his father; he, too, can 
malign Hamlet; he can raise an armed rebellion upon 
the mere suspicion of the King's guilt ; he can at once 
fall in with the King's plot to take Hamlet's life, and to 
make assurance doubly sure he can poison his own foil ; 
but all of these things are not near his conscience, for of 
conscience he has none. 

Alas ! that poor Ophelia, sweet and gentle, should 
have been so unfortunate as to have her lot cast in this 
conscienceless family ! But here we find her ; she can 
hear her father and brother besmirch Hamlet's character 
and scarcely utter a protest ; she cannot even defend 
her lover, in whom she herself sees no fault ; she can 
become a tool in the hands of her father to bring Hamlet 
to destruction. At last her mind gives way under the 
strain of her great loss, but her broken, pathetic snatches 
of song contain no hint of remorse for her unjust treat- 
ment of Hamlet ; of conscience-conflict there is none. 
In this family the mother-element is entirely lacking ; this 
fact calls forth our sympathy for Oplielia, and we feel 
like condoning what we otherwise could not excuse. 
The redeeming quality of this family is the devotion of 



HAMLET 261 

the members to one anotlier ; the son and daughter, 
having no higher ideals than the father, are devoted to 
him, obedient and ever ready to defend him. P,ut we 
can readily see how selfishness and cunning without 
conscience can work only destruction in the end. 

THE CONTRADICTORY HAMLET 

In the wide range of literature, where can be found 
a character which is indeed such a sphinx as Hamlet? 
one who is so constantly contradictory? He is sane and 
he is insane. He is active and he is inactive. He is 
strong of purpose, and he is w^ak of will. He loves 
Ophelia, but he is cruel to her. He recoils against blood- 
shed, but he can kill Polonius and send Rosencrantz and 
Guildenstern to their death. He is impulsive, yet he is 
reftective and deliberate. He has a quick wit. is a merry 
jester and a profound theologian. Small wonder that 
the subjective conflict rages so fiercely. His outward 
appearance is by no means uniform. Hamlet's various 
phases are so distinct that they may be classified. 



Outward 

Hamlet 



Inner 
Hamlet 



r I As he appears to the world before his father's 
-! death. 

I 2 As he appears at court after his mother's marriage. 



1 The Instinctive or Impulsive. 

2 The Imaginative. 

3 The Moral and Religious. 

4 The Intellectual or Reflective. 



The inner or subjective Hamlet manifests four 
phases ; he comes strongly under the spell of first one 
characteristic and then of another, thus seemingly con- 



262 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

tradicting himself when in reaHty he is perfectly natural. 
It almost seems that the poet wishes to present in Ham- 
let the whole range of the human mind. 

The Impulsive Hamlet would haste to know the cir- 
icumstances of his father's murder — "that I," he says, 

with wings as swift 
As meditation or the thoughts of love, 
May sweep to my revenge. 

The Imaginative Hamlet thinks he sees his father — 
In my mind's eye, Horatio. 

The Moral Hamlet is so crushed by the conduct of 
his mother that he wishes 

that the Everlasting had not fixed 
His canon 'gainst self-slaughter! 

But since the Everlasting has fixed this law, the Re- 
ligious Hamlet withholds his hand and refrains from 
taking his own life. The Moral Hamlet conflicts with 
the outer world, he finds the time is out of joint, and 
when he realizes that to set it right devolves upon him, 
he rebels. 

The Reflective Hamlet cannot act. 

Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, 
And thus the native hue of resolution 
Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought. 
And enterprises of great pith and moment 
With this regard their currents turn away 
And lose the name of action. 

When the Impulsive Hamlet stops to argue with the 
Reflective Hamlet, the latter always gets the better of 



HAMLET 263 

the arg-ument and action is cither delayed or altogether 
prevented. 

The Impulsive Hamlet can act. The Reflective Ham- 
let, though he cannot plan deliberate action for himself, 
can thwart the plans of others. Even the deep-laid 
schemes of the King and those of the wily Polonius fail 
through the Intellectual Hamlet's keen insight and quick 
wit ; he seems to read their very minds. 

Effect of Action. Notice the effect of action upon 
the Inactive Hamlet. It seems as though he were stand- 
ing at one side and watching the drama of his own life 
enacted. He determines to put an antic disposition on 
and then it seems sport to him to work out the result. 
He so enjoys baffling the King that for the time he seems 
to lose sight of his original intent. It is such a pleasure 
to throw sand in the eyes of Polonius that he tantalizes 
the tedious old fool just for the pleasure of watching his 
bewilderment. He sets up a glass for his mother where she 
may see the inmost part of her, and the active mill grinds 
until the Ghost must appear to stop it. He kills Polonius, 
and the Impulsive Hamlet has at last overcome the Re- 
flective Hamlet and conscience conflicts are done with — 

Let it work ; 
For 'tis the sport to have the enginer 
Hoist with his own petar : and 't shall go hard 
But I will delve one yard below their mines, 
And blow them at the moon. O. 'tis most sweet 
When in one line two crafts directly meet. 

And so he can send Rosencrantz and Guildenstem to 
death and sav, "Thev are not near mv conscience" ; and 



264 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



n 



he can at last face death itself feeling that "there's a 
special providence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 
'tis not to come ; if it be not to come, it will be now ; 
if it be not now, yet it will come ; the readiness is all." 

THE PLAY " 

Basis. Before the play opens a foul and horrible 
deed has been committed ; the Ethical World is disturbed, 
its harmony must be restored : this forms the basis for a 
drama. The manner of the deed is such that no positive 
evidence of it exists ; mystery begins the play. We may 
say that even the deed itself is not objective. The sud- 
den and mysterious death of the King and the hasty 
marriage of the Queen give the only objective basis for 
a plot. Hamlet seems to be the only one upon whom 
these events have made any very decided impression. 

Hamlet's Basis of Action. The mystery connected 
with the death of Hamlet's father must be revealed in 
order to give a basis for any action ; the Ghost reveals 
the truth to Hamlet and charges him to revenge the 
deed. Hamlet now has a starting-point from which to 
work. 

Necessity of the Ghost. The Ghost not only re- 
veals the deed to Hamlet, but he makes the whole situa- 
tion clear to the audience, thus showing a second neces- 
sity for an objective ghost. He gives the keynote to the 
characters of the King and Queen, and even starts the 
line of thought on the life to come, upon which Hamlet is 
so cotistantls' pondering all through the play. 



HAMLET 265 

King's Basis of Action. The King's guilty con- 
science and Hamlet's peculiar behavior cause him to feel 
that the same young man suspects him of foul plav ; 
this belief gives him a basis for action. Hamlet and 
the King are now arrayed against each other and action 
begins. 

The Crime. The crime is both regicide and fratri- 
cide ; the King of Denmark has been murdered ; the 
brother, the husband and father has been murdered. 
Claudius states his motive for the <\qq(\ he has com- 
mitted — 

those effects tor which I did the murder, 
My crown, mine own ambition and my queen. 

He was impelled by both ambition and lust. 

The Revenge. Hamlet is to revenge the crime. 
Which crime? — Regicide or fratricide? Is his grief 
caused by the facts that the King has been niun:lered, 
and his uncle has by his marriage defrauded him of the 
throne, or is it due to the murder of his father, and his 
mother's having been false to her marriage vows? The 
answer to this question is not difficult to find, and it 
gives the keynote to Hamlet's character. 

King's Claim to the Cronm. The liereditary right to 
the throne lies in Gertrude. The King's claim is by 
right of marriage ; consequently, Claudius's claims, as 
Gertrude's husband, are as just as were those of her 
former husband. Had she remained a widow, Hamlet 
would undoubtedly have succeded his father, since the 
crown is to a certain extent elective, and TTamlct is a 
great favorite. It is not till the very end of the i)Iay, 



266 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

when he is trying to justify himself in having changed 
the commission, thus sending Rosencrantz and Guilden- 
stern to their death, that he says: 

He that hath killed my king, and stained, my mother; 
Popped in between the election and my hopes. 

It is readily seen all through the first movement that 
it is Hamlet's moral nature which is stirred to its very 
depths ; ambition for power nowhere appears. 

Hamlet's Position. When the Ghost reveals to Ham- 
let the manner of his father's death and charges him to 
revenge the deed, he at the same time imposes two re- 
strictions which must be observed no matter what 
method may be taken to accomplish the work — first, 
"taint not thy mind," and secondly, "nor let thy soul con- 
trive against thy mother aught." He must do nothing 
which he cannot justify before the people, and, we think 
we are safe in saying, nothing which will involve his 
conscience. Nor must he in any way implicate his 
mother ; she must be left to her conscience, which will 
sufficiently prick and sting her. If we observe care- 
fully, we see that Hamlet is pretty thoroughly hedged in. 

Justice of the Demand. There is no court of justice 
before which Claudius can be arraigned; as King, he 
himself forms the highest court. If the murder is to be 
avenged or revenged, it devolves upon Hamlet, as the 
nearest of kin, to make the murderer pay the penalty for 
his crime. We must then take the position that the deed 
required of Hamlet is justifiable; not only the Ghost but 
justice requires him to kill Claudius. 



HAMLET 267 

Obstacles to he Overcome. Two obstacles He in his 
way, one objective and the other subjective. First there 
are the restrictions imposed : how can he kill his uncle, 
having no external evidence that Claudius murdered the 
King, and justify himself in the eyes of the people of 
Denmark? Secondly, how can he, mentally and physi- 
cally constituted as he is, deliberately plan in cool blood 
to take the life of another, even though justice demands 
the act? The impulsive Hamlet can thrust his dagger 
through the arras ; the reflective Hamlet cannot shed 
blood. Careful study of the play shows that Hamlet 
never discusses the first proposition : we may see that 
the poet never gives him an opportunity to meet the 
requirements of the Ghost. Indeed, we almost feel that 
the impossible has been laid upon him ; since Hamlet 
himself does not seem to worry about this side of the 
question, we will consider his course of action through 
the play from his own standpoint, the subjective ; in 
doing so put yourself in his place ; try, for the time 
being, to be Hamlet. 

THE CONFLICT 

Hamlet. Every, drama of character implies a double 
conflict — the internal or subjective, and the" '^Kternal or 
objective. 

The objective conflict, "r the action of this play is 
necessarily slow, since it depends u])on Hamlet to take 
the decisive step, and the reflective man always acts 
deliberately: the more reflective he is the greater is his 
deliberation. 

In this objective conflict Hamlet shows his inaction. 



268 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

What a contrast we see here to Macbeth, who, when he 
decides to put to death the entire family of Macduff, 
says : 

From this moment, 
The very firstlings of my heart shall be 
The firstlings of my hand. And even now, 
To crown my thoughts with acts, be it thought and done, 

and messengers are dispatched immediately, ''before this 
purpose cool," to the castle of Macduff, to do their hor- 
rible work. 

The Impulsive Hamlet declares that he will act; but 
the Reflective Hamlet holds him back ; when he does 
act, his action is prompted by circumstances rather than 
by any deliberate planning on his own part. It is inter- 
esting to note that while the King plans and sets in- 
fluences to work, Hamlet allows influences to work upon 
him, but at the same time he manages to thwart them 
before they culminate in results. 

Seemingly that we may see this character more 
clearly, the poet has in the external conflict made Hamlet 
stand absolutely alone ; he has no helpers, no one upon 
whom he can shift the slightest responsibility for the 
success or failure of any plan. Horatio is a dear friend 
and sympathizer. Hamlet could not well do without 
him ; the play could not do without him. He helps to 
bring out Hamlet, and through him we learn much. 
But he does not play the part of an adviser. He never 
helps Hamlet in any way to plan or to executg any act 
which will aid him in revenging the murder of his 
father ; he aids only at the outset in bringing Hamlet 
and the Ghost together, that action may be started, and, 



HAMLET 269 

when all is over, in setting Hamlet right before the 
world. 

The subjective conflict in this play is drawn with 
wonderful clearness. In fact, we feel that the play itself 
is Hamlet's subjective conflict; in this conflict the inter- 
est centers. Volumes have been written upon this topic 
alone, and as we read the views of the many critics and 
see how they dififer, we feel that the mystery is still a 
mystery. < 

The King. The King also has his subjective con- 
flict, but his mind is quite transparent ; we can easily 
read him. His conscience makes him feel that Hamlet 
is dangerous, and he never wavers from his fixed pur- 
pose to get rid of his nephew. His method is the same 
from his first deed to the last ; he always plans to cover 
his tracks, to execute the deed in such a way that his 
guilt cannot be suspected. But 

Murder though it have no tongue, will speak 
With most miraculous organ, 

and Justice is not to be defrauded because the deed has 
been committed in tho dark and retribution entrusted 
to one unfitted for the task. 

NEMESIS 

Polonius. In no other of the great dramatist's trag- 
edies can we trace the unrelenting hand of Nemesis more 
surely holding the evil-doer to the result of his deed than 
in this soul-searching drama. The wily, plotting, schem- 
ing Polonius comes to his death at the hand of tlie Im- 
pulsive Hamlet early in the play, simply as a result of 



270 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

letting his brain hunt the trail of policy a little too 
sure. 

Ophelia. Poor Ophelia's moral courage and charac- 
ter are too weak to stand a great strain, and while her 
end is extremely pathetic, we do not for a moment feel 
that it is unjust. 

The Queen. Nowhere in the world of literature do 
we find an example of such wonderful retribution as in 
the final grand tragedy. First we may say that the 
Queen is the original cause of the crime; by allowing 
herself to receive the unlawful attentions of Claudius, 
she drops into his mind the seeds of temptation, which 
result in the murder of her husband. As the primal 
cause was in her, so she is the first to fall, and from the 
cup poisoned by the hand of the murderer for her son to 
drink. 

The King. Next the guilty doer of the deed himself 
receives from the hand of him whose death he has been 
plotting throughout the entire play the stab from the foil 
poisoned to make sure the death of his victim, and is 
then forced by the same hand to drink of his own pois- 
oned cup. Laertes says: '*He is justly served; it is a 
poison tempered by himself." 

Laertes. And now Laertes, having received from the 
hand of Hamlet the stab from his own foil, poisoned by 
himself in order to make sure the death of Hamlet, ex- 
claims : 

the foul practice 
Hath turned itself on me; lo, here I lie, 
Never to rise again. 



HAMLET 271 

Hamlet. Last of all, Hamlet, who in the impulse of 
the moment slew Laertes's father, yields to the effect of 
Laertes's poisoned foil and dies, but with his moral na- 
ture shining out bright and clear above all other elements 
of his character when he begs Horatio to set him right 
before the world : 

O, good Horatio, what a wounded name. 

Things standing thus unknown, shall live behind me! 

If thou didst ever hold me in thy heart. 

Absent thee from felicity a whde. 

And in this harsh world draw thy breath in pain, 

To tell my story. 

As though to make the retribution still more com- 
plete, in the final tragedy the guilty all come to their 
deaths by means employed in the original crime — 
poison.* 

In one fell swoop, Denmark has lost her corrupt king 
and queen, her courtier, who would have usurped the 
crown, and her prince, who was unfitted for govern- 
ment. 

Rosencrantz and Giiildcnstern. When Handet is tell- 
ing Horatio of having changed the commission to make 
it pass death sentence upon Rosencrantz and Guilden- 
stern, instead of himself, he says : 

Why, man, they did make love to this employment : 
They are not near my conscience; their debate 
Doth by their own insinuation grow. 



♦Some critics think that Hamlefs sword-thrust kllh^d the King, 

that the latter died before the poison had had time to take effect. 

Hamlet says, "The point enveuom'd too !— 'I'licn. venom, do thy work. 

Hudson says the King did not drink from the cup. La.-rles says: 

He is justly served : 

It Is a poison tempered by himself. 




272 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Too late for Hamlet to know comes the news that 

his commandment is fulfilled, 
That Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are dead. 

Harmony Restored. Thus the retribution is com- 
plete ; the guilty all suffer the penalty of their own deeds, 
and bring upon themselves their own tragic deaths. The 
law of Tragedy is fulfilled ; harmony is restored in the 
Ethical World by the destruction of all of the discordant 
elements ; while in the political world it is restored by 
the election of Fortinbras, the perfectly mediated char- 
acter, to the crown of Denmark, which Hamlet foresees 
and sanctions with his dying voice. 

At last the guilty king is slain by the Impulsive Ham- 
let — the elder Hamlet is revenged, but how different is 
the end from what he would have planned ! In order 
that his injunction to Hamlet — "Taint not thy mind" — 
may be carried out, Horatio is left to 

speak to th' yet unknowing world 
How these things came about : so shall you hear 
Of carnal, bloody and unnatural acts, 
Of accidental judgments, casual slaughters, 
Of deaths put on by cunning and forced cause. 
And, in this upshot, purposes mistook 
Fall'n on th' inventors' heads : all this can I 
Truly deliver. 

"Carnal, bloody and unnatural acts" refers, of course, 
to the deeds of Claudius and the Queen — the murder of 
the King, Gertrude's disloyalty to her husband, and her 
unduly hasty marriage to his murderer. "Accidental 
judgments" doubtless refers to Hamlet's remark, "I took 



HAMLET 273 

thee for thy better," when he discovered that his thrust 
through the arras had killed Polonius, and "casual 
slaughters" to the deed itself. "Deaths put on by cun- 
ning and forced cause" can refer only to the deaths of 
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. "In this upshot," or final 
grand tragedy, "purposes mistook" cause the evil deeds 
to fall "on th' inventors' heads." 

Office of Horatio. Thus Horatio is able to clear 
Hamlet of guilt in the eyes of the world by showing that 
the Queen, the King and Laertes all have come at last 
to their own tragic deaths as the result of their own 
deeds, although Hamlet himself has had to suffer the 
same penalty. 

Horatio evidently feels that in his summmg up he 
must account to the people of Denmark for all of the 
tragic deaths. Perhaps he does not think it necessary 
to account for Ophelia's sad end, and many do not con- 
sider her death tragic in the dramatic sense. It may be 
thought straining a point to interpret "accidental judg- 
ments" as referring to Ophelia ; and still the term might 
be so construed; Horatio has referred to events in their 
order of occurrence, which would give this place to 
Ophelia's death, and she certainly allowed herself to be- 
come the victim of accidental or mis judgments. 

THREE QUESTIONS 

Hamlet's Insanity. Some questions are still queries. 
Hamlet's insanity has been thoroughly discussed by the 
ablest critics. Three theories have been advanced : 



274^ STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

I. That he was insane. 
11. That he was sane but feigned insanity. 
III. That he was sane and did not feign insanity. 

Those who hold the last have a good deal in the play 
to account for. 

Those who hold the second must show what was 
gained or what was to be gained by feigning insanity. 

Of critics who hold the first we would ask : Would a 
master of dramatic art attempt to base an artistic drama 
upon the vagaries of an insane mind? 

The Great Question. Much has also been said of 
Hamlet as a man of action. He could act, and he could 
not act. Was his conflict with his will, or was it with his 
conscience — his moral and religious nature? The an- 
swer to this would throw light upon what is perhaps, 
after all, the great question — Why did not Hamlet kill 
the King? This question should be considered from two 
viewpoints, the dramatic and the psychological. The first 
has been touched upon. The keenest minds have pon- 
dered the second ; the results of their insight vary so 
greatly that the query still stands for each individual 
reader to answer for himself. 

If you ask Hamlet, he tells you that he does not know. 
(Act IV, Scene i.) Did Shakespeare himself know, I 
wonder? If you ask me I must answer, 'T do not know," 
but after reading the opinions of the various critics I 
always find myself coming to the same conclusion — per- 
haps it is rather an intuition — that Hamlet's moral nature 
was stronger than any other element of his character ; his 
reflective mind was a natural result of his thoroughly 



. HAMLET 275 

moral temperament; the moral man must be reflective. 
When contemplating a deed so revolting to his every nat- 
ural instinct, he exclaimed, 

The time is out of joint: O cursed spite, 
That ever I was born to set it right ! 

And it was impossible for him to "screw" his "courage to 
the sticking-place," and so he continued to "live to sa>' 
this thing's to do," notwithstanding he had "cause and 
will and strength and means to do 't." 

The Real Tragedy. After all, wherein lies the real 
tragedy of this wonderful drama? Is it in this final 
grand catastrophe which sweeps out all of these dis- 
cordant elements, or is it in the subjective tragedy of 
Hamlet's life? Was the life of this young man of noble 
impulses and grand qualities wrecked because he was re- 
quired to perform a deed which was so revolting to his 
moral nature that he could not make his reason and his 
will drive him to do it? Does Schlegel rightly call Ham- 
let "a tragedy of thought" ? 

However we may interpret it, this is the play of all 
plays which possesses the greatest fascination for all 
Shakespearean lovers and Shakespearean readers, and 
their name is legion. We read it. We study it. It never 
grows old. We turn to it again and again with renewed 
interest, because we always feel the desire to know it, 
and the fascination abides because we still feel that, after 
all, we really do not know it. The riddle of the Sphinx 
remains unsolved. 



276 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

STRUCTURE 

. The structure of Hamlet is not difficult to trace; only 
a few points need be added to the hints already given. 

Hamlet kills Polonius ; he commits the very deed he is 
trying to avenge — he kills a father. He thus makes him- 
self a guilty individual. After the deed, in the second 
movement, note the great change in Hamlet. 

Threads. In the Hamlet thread, Hamlet stands al- 
most alone so far as actual assistance is concerned. Still 
there are those who are naturally grouped in his thread 
of the play. The King has more active workers ; the 
threads should be grouped according to the importance 
of the function of these helpers in the working out of 
their thread. To illustrate : 
First movement. King's thread : 

Group a, Claudius and Gertrude. 

Group b, The Polonius family. 

Other groups follow. 

This grouping refers to the deed. A group simply 
for the purpose of State is readily seen — the courtiers 
who have little or nothing to do with Hamlet. 

In the second movement it will be seen that Laertes 
takes the place of Polonius. 

Subjective Conflicts. Since Hamlet's subjective con- 
flict is as strong as, if not stronger than, his external 
conflict, we may consider that his thread in the first 
movement has an internal phase. Again, we find two 
strands in the external set of influences, one driving him 
on to revenge his father ; the other, the lack of external 
evidence, withholding him. These conflict with the in- 



HAMLET 277 

ternal influences, his moral and spiritual nature, and the 
subjective conflict is at times so strong as well-nigh to 
drive him to suicide. 

The King has not only his external conflict with 
Hamlet, but his internal conflict with himself. The 
threads in the subjective conflicts may be traced as 
clearly as those in the external conflicts. The student 
should by all means work out the threads and movements 
fully, showing the dramatic purpose or the part which 
each character serves in the play. 

Class Study 

REVIEW 

1 Define Nemesis. 

2 The modern English Drama combines the princi- 
ples of the Mystery and Morality plays and the Inter- 
lude ; trace these three elements through the Hamlet 
drama. 

3 State changes which have taken place in the man- 
ner of presentation of a drama since Shakespeare's time. 

4 According to Saintsbury, what are the three dis- 
tinguishing points in Shakespeare? 

5 What are his three distinct purposes? 

6 Review carefully the Principles and Structure of 
the Shakespearean Drama. 

THE PLAY 

1 Classify the play, giving reasons for classification. 

2 How is the Ethical World disturbed ? 

3 How is its harmony restored? 



278 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



4 State the basis of the plot. 

5 Give the basis of Hamlet's action and of the 
King's action. 

6 Group the principal characters according to their 
relation to the State, the Family, the deed committed, the 
Ethical World, in the following outline form: 



Characters 


State 


Family 


Deed 


Ethical World 


Ghost 


Former 
King 


Husband to 
Gertrude 
Father to 
Hamlet 


Victim 


Plans restoration 

of 

Harmony 


Claudius 


King 


Husband to 
Gertrude 
Uncle and Step- 
father to Hamlet 


Guilty Doer 


Disturber 

of 

Harmony 



8 Work out the structure of the play fully. 

9 Act I is very remarkable in its fullness, the 
groundwork of the play is so elaborately laid,* so much 
information is given, the keynote of the characters is so 
thoroughly sounded. Work the act out carefully with 
reference to these points. 

10 Work out the plot by movements, acts and scenes 
by means of graphic illustration. 



CHARACTERIZATION 

/. The Ghost 
First Movement — Guilt 
The first act has well been called the Ghost's Act. 
While the groundwork of the play is very fully laid in 



HAMLET 279 

this act, this groundwork depends upon the revelation 
of the Ghost, and the interest centers in him. 

1 The poet has taken great pains to make the Ghost 
objective ; it appears twice to the guards, but has no 
message for them ; to Horatio the scholar, friend of 
Hamlet, it will not speak. Why is this? Is there any 
especial purpose in it? 

2 What is the office of the Ghost in the play ? 

3 When the Ghost reveals the deed, which does he 
emphasize, his murder as a King or the moral question 
of virtue ? 

4 Why does Horatio link the appearance of the 
Ghost with affairs of State, while Hamlet at once sus- 
pects some foul play, evidently with reference to his 
father ? 

5 What character does the Ghost give himself? 

6 Why does he command Hamlet to revenge his 
murder, instead of requiring him to bring Claudius to 
justice? Were revenge and justice synonymous terms 
in those days? 

7 After the Ghost disappears in Scene i, notice the 
change in the mental attitude of the Ghost-seers ; how 
they lapse into a poetic frame of mind, and Marcellus 
recalls the beautiful Christmas legend, which seems to 
clarify the atmosphere, both mental and physical, and 
introduces the religious thought which to a great extent 
colors the whole play. How can you account for this 
change ? 

8 Make a list of the beliefs concerning ghosts. 

9 What revelations does the Ghost make to Ham- 
let? Make a list of twelve points brought out. 



280 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



"! 



10 When Hamlet is making Horatio and Marcellus'' 
swear secrecy, why does the poet have the Ghost follow 
them in the cellerage, requiring them to swear? 

11 Why does the subjective Ghost appear to Ham- 
let in the closet scene? Why is it not objective then as 
well as in the opening of the play? 

12 Why does, not the Queen hear it speak? 

13 Would you have the Ghost in this scene objec- 
tive to the audience? 

14 What would be the effect if it were objective to 
the Queen? 

Second Movement 

Why does the Ghost not appear in this movement? 

// Horatio and the Ghost 

1 Why is Horatio called watch for the Ghost? 

2 EIow does the poet pave the way for Horatio to 
tell Hamlet of the appearance of the Ghost? 

3 Is it dramatically necessary that Bernardo should 
go with Horatio. and Marcellus when they go to inform 
Hamlet of the Ghost's appearance ? 

4 Why will not the Ghost talk to Hamlet in the 
presence of Horatio and Marcellus? 

5 Why is Horatio afraid to let Hamlet go away 
alone with the Ghost? 

6 What is Horatio's mental attitude towards Ghosts 
at first? 

7 How does this attitude change after the appear- 
ance of the Ghost ? 



HAMLET 281 

/// Hamlet and the Ghost 

1 In what frame of mind is Hamlet when Horatio 
and the others enter to inform him of the appearance 
of the Ghost? Can you see any dramatic purpose in 
having them enter just at this time? 

2 In what expression does Hamlet first show that 
he has the ghost within him, ready to meet the objective 
Ghost? How does he show this all through the conver- 
sation in Act i^ Scene 2 ? 

3 Does he show any fear? 

4 Why does he at once enjoin secrecy? 

5 Interpret the last four lines of this scene. 

6 Note the perfectly natural conversation with 
which Scene 4 in Act i opens. 

7 What is Hamlet's attitude toward the Ghost when 
he first sees it? Does he recognize it? Interpret his 
first expression. Does he express fear, or reverence, or 
irreverence ? 

8 Interpret his speech, "I do not set my life at a 
pin's fee." 

9 Show how in the latter part of the scene the 
Ghost takes complete possession of him. 

10 In Scene 5, why does Hamlet say, 'Til go no 
further"? 

11 In calling upon Hamlet to revenge him, to what 
element in Hamlet's nature does the Ghost first appeal? 

12 In what state of mind does the Ghost leave Ham- 
let? 

13 Give Hamlet's vow and study it carefully. 



282 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

14 The strict keeping of this vow will change his 
life in what particulars? 

15 In what frame of mind does he meet Horatio a| 
and Marcellus? 

16 Does he show any indication that his reason is 
affected by his interview with the Ghost? 

17 Why will he not tell Horatio and Marcellus what 
ihe Ghost has revealed? 

18 Why is he so anxious for secrecy? 

19 How do you interpret the following speech? 

How strange or odd soe'er I bear myself, 
As I perchance hereafter shall think meet 
To put an antic disposition on. 

20 His final conclusion is, 

The time is out of joint: O cursed spite, 
That ever I was born to set it right ! 

Interpret this speech. Does it shed any light on his 
future action? 

21 Is it any indication of his character? 

IV Hamlet mid the King 
First Movement — Guilt 

1 Note that we are first introduced to Hamlet in 
the family relation. In what frame of mind is he? 

2 He begins by talking in riddles. Interpret his 
first two remarks if you can. 

3 What is the King's attitude toward Hamlet? 
The Queen's? Are they sincere? 

4 What is Hamlet's philosophy of grief? What 
the King's? 



HAMLET 283 

5 Does the Queen in any way sound the keynote 
to the King's speech? 

6 Is the King sincere? Does he really wish 
Hamlet to remain at home? 

7 What would have been the result had Hamlet 
returned to Wittenberg? 

8 Does the King at first think his nephew insane? 

9 What means does he take to find out positively? 

10 How^ does Hamlet appear and talk to the King? 
Does he talk like a really insane man? 

11 Does he read the King's mind? 

12 How does he plan to entrap the King? 

13 Who shows the greater system and deliberation 
in planning, Hamlet or the King? Which succeeds? 

14 Why does the King "fright with false fire"? 

15 Do you see any evidence that after the play tht 
King is convinced with regard to Hamlet's insanity? 

16 Why does not Hamlet kill the King when he 
finds him alone on his knees? 

17 Is Hamlet sincere when he decides not 

To take him in the purging of his soul, 
When he is fit and season'd for his passage, 

or is he trying to excuse himself? 

Second Movement — Retribution 

1 Give the King's reasoning about sending Hamlet 
to England. 

2 Interpret Hamlet's talk to the King about the 
body of Polonius. 

3 What excuse does the King make to I lamlel f : 
sending him to England? 



284 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

4 When in the Queen's closet, how does Hamlet 
know that he is to be sent to England? 

5 Interpret "I see a cherub that sees them." 

6 At the close of this conversation, why, when 
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern have passed out, does the 
King disclose his plans for the death of Hamlet? 

7 What effect does the news of Hamlet's return 
have upon Laertes in his relation to the King? 

8 Is there any evidence that the King has fore- 
stalled Hamlet's possible return by another plan to get 
rid of him? 

9 Do you find any evidence that Hamlet sees the 
King, as he says, to ''recount the occasion of my sudden 
and more strange return," or that he ever has any real 
conversation with him after his return ? 

10 How many times do they come into actual per- 
sonal contact? On what occasions? 

11 What has the King planned to do in case the 
scheme with Laertes fails? 

12 Would the King's plans have succeeded without 
Laertes's poisoned foil? 

13 All through the play we see that the King 
depends on his plans and Hamlet depends on his wits. 
Which o'er master the other, the plans or the wits? 

V Hamlet and His Mother 

1 How is Hamlet affected by the discovery that 
his mother has been false to his father and to her true 
womanhood ? 

2 How many times in this play does Hamlet meet 
his mother, and under what conditions? 



HAMLET » 285 

3 Who plans the closet scene, and for what pur- 
pose? 

4 In what mood is Hamlet when he goes to his 
mother's closet? 

5 Does he obey the injunction of the Ghost to 

leave her to heaven, 
And to those thorns that in her bosom lodge, 
To prick and sting her? 

6 Is she afraid of him? When he says, 
And — would it were not so ! — you arc my mother, 

what are his inmost thoughts and feelings? 

7 Wlien Hamlet thrusts through the arras, does 
he really think he is going to kill the King? Must he 
not recognize Polonius's voice when the old man calls 
for help? 

8 When Hamlet sets up to his mother a glass 
where she may see the inmost part of her, how does he 
succeed? What ability does he show? Do you think 
he would be able to convince a jury now^adays? 

9 When she confesses that he has turned her eyes 
into her very soul, and begs him to speak no more, why 
does he not stop? 

10 Why does the Ghost appear to Hamlet at this 
point ? 

1 1 What effect does Hamlet's vision have upon the 
Queen ? 

12 What does the Queen mean when she says 

This bodiless creation ecstasy 
Is very cunning in? 



286 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

13 Do you notice any change in Hamlet's attitude 
toward his mother after the visitation of the Ghost? 

14 How does he feel toward her at the close of this 
part of the conversation? 

15 Do you consider his last charge to his mother 
an evidence of sanity or of insanity? 

16 Do you think the Queen believes him insane? 

17 Does she keep her pledge to Hamlet? 

18 When she realizes that she is dying, to whom 
does she give her last thought? 

19 Does Hamlet truly love his mother? 

20 Does she truly love him? 

21 Does he forgive her? 

22 He so sweetly and tenderly says, 

And when you are desirous to be blest 
I'll blessing beg of you. 

Does she give him the opportunity? 

VI Hamlet mid Ophelia 
First Movement 

1 Study carefully Hamlet's vow after the Ghost 
leaves him ; do you find in it any key to his treatment of 
Ophelia ? 

2 Is Hamlet's personal appearance when he visits 
Ophelia in her closet any evidence of insanity? 

3 Is he trying to make her think him insane? 

4 For symptoms of love, refer to the conversation 
between Rosalind and Orlando in As Yoti Like It, in the 
last part of Scene 2, Act iii. 



HAMLET 287 

5 Account for Hamlet's letters to Ophelia. Do 
they sound like Hamlet, the intellectual scholar from 
Wittenberg ? 

6 As shown by the interview between Hamlet and 
Ophelia, planned by Polonius, in what mood is Hamlet 
when Ophelia enters? 

7 How do you interpret Hamlet in this interview? 
Does he really love Ophelia ? How do you account for 
his severe talk? Is he gentlemanly? Can you read 
between the lines and trace any evidence of tenderness? 

Some think he is heartbroken because he knows that 
he must give her up. and at her treatment of him. and 
that he is forcing himself to go to these extremes in 
order to keep up and not break down completely. What 
do you think of this view? 

8 Why does he suddenly interrupt himself with 
the inquiry, "Where's your father?" 

9 Interpret his speech beginning "I have heard of 
vour paintings too." What has made him mad? 

' 10 In "All but one shall live," to whom does he 
refer? 

11 Does he wish to make Ophelia believe him 
insane ? 

12 Does she believe him insane? 

13 Has Polonius succeeded in convincing the King 
that Hamlet is mad because of neglected love? 

14 Is it natural for Hamlet to seek Ophelia's com- 
pany at the play? 

15 Does he show any evidence of insanity here? 
Does Ophelia really love Hamlet? Give her estimate 
of him. 



288 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Second Movement 

In the second movement, Ophelia has lost both father 
and lover — the father slain by the lover's hand, and 
Hamlet sent from the country. Left thus alone, she is 
unable to bear the strain of her environments, and her 
mind completely gives way. The poet leaves us in no 
doubt about her mental condition. 

1 Is there any dramatic purpose in having her 
brought to the Queen by Horatio? 

2 What is the burden of her song? Why did not 
the poet make her sing of her lover? 

3 How are the King and Queen affected by her 
condition ? 

4 Can you see any dramatic purpose in having her 
brought to them in this condition at this time? 

5 What is the dramatic purpose in bringing in 
Laertes in armed rebellion at this point, and of having 
him confront Ophelia? 

6 Can you see any dramatic purpose in having the 
news of her death brought to Laertes just as the King 
has finished disclosing his plot to take Hamlet's life? 

7 Is Ophelia's death accidental or does she commit 
suicide ? 

8 Do you find anything in her songs or her talk 
which indicate that her insanity will take the form of 
suicidal intent? 

9 In his remarks at the grave does the Priest show 
the spirit of true Christianity, or that of religious 
formalism ? 

TO How do you account for Hamlet's leap into the 



HAMLET 289 

grave and his struggle with Laertes? Do you regard it 
as evidence of great love for Ophelia? 

II Which of the four inner Hamlets is manifested 
here? 

VII Hamlet and Polonius 

Polonius sounds the keynote to his own character in 
his interview wdth Reynaldo, when he says: 

Your bait of falsehood takes this carp of truth, 
And thus do we of wisdom and of reach, 
With windlass and with assays of bias. 
By indirections find directions out. 

He is the scheming, witty politician, utterly devoid of 
conscience or of true moral principles. Cunning is his 
only basis of action. 

And I do think, or else this brain of mine 
Hunts not the trail of policy so sure 
As I have us'd to do — that I have found 
The very cause of Hamlet's lunacy. 

This is the man who is prying out Hamlet's secret — one 
who has nothing whatever in common with Handet's 
nature. 

1 \Miy does Polonius warn Ophelia against 
Llandet ? 

2 Do you find any evidence that Polonius is 
justifialde in slurring Hamlet's character as he does? 

3 Does Polonius think Handet's i)ersonal appear- 
ance, when he visits Ophelia in her closet, an evidence 
of insanity or of intense love? 

4 Do you think Polonius justifiable in finally con- 



290 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

eluding that Hamlet is insane, and because Ophelia has 
repulsed him? 

5 What do you think of his 'plans for detecting 
Hamlet? 

6 Why does Hamlet call him a fishmonger? 

7 Does Hamlet read Polonius? Why does he ask, 
"Have you a daughter ?" before Polonius mentions 
Ophelia ? 

8 He talks in riddles until Polonius leaves him, 
when he speaks of "these tedious old fools" ; what does 
he mean by this? 

9 Compare Hamlet and Polonius in this conver- 
sation. 

10 Has Polonius accomplished anything in this 
interview^ ? 

11 AVhen giving Ophelia directions about meeting 
Hamlet, he says: 

We're oft to blame in this 
. . . that with devotion's visage 
And pious action we do sugar o'er 
The devil himself. 

What does he mean? Is there any dramatic purpose in 
putting these words into his mouth at this time? 

12 What underhanded cunning does he now show? 

13 Which has outwitted the other, Hamlet or Polo- 
nius? 

14 Do you find any evidence that Polonius is doubt- 
ful about Hamlet's insanity? 

15 Does Polonius succeed in convincing the King? 

16 Do you think the. King really believes Hamlet 
at all insane? 



HAMLET 291 

17 What is Polonius's next plan? 

18 Interpret the conversation between Hamlet and 
Polonius after the play, when i*olonius conies in to tell 
Hamlet that the Queen would speak to him. 

19 Interpret, "They fool me to the top of my bent." 

20 Wliy does the poet have Hamlet left alone at 
this point? Read carefully Hamlet's short soliloquv. 
Note his frame of mind when he sees the king on his 
knees, and when he goes to meet his mother. 

21 In the closet scene, which Polonius thinks he 
has so cunningly planned, do you think that Hamlet 
really expects to kill any one when he makes a pass 
through the arras, or is it simply a random thrust niade 
in the heat of the moment? 

22 Do you see any object in having Polonius killed 
at the very beginning of this interview ? Whv not carry 
him through the play? 

23 Does Hamlet show any regret for what he has 
done? Note that he has just refused to kill the King 
when he found him alone. 

Take thy fortune ; 
Thou find'st to be too busy is some danger 

Interpret. Do you agree with Hamlet? 

24 Does Polonius deserve his fate? 

25 Can you justify Hamlet? 

VIII Hamlet and Rosencrant- and Guihicnstcru 

First Movement 

1 How does Hamlet receive Rosencrantz and 
Guildenstcrn at first? What seems to be his spirit?^ 



292 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

2 Compare the way in which he handles them with 
his handhng of Polonius. 

3 What does he mean when he says : ''By my fay 
I cannot reason," and "I am most dreadfully attended"? 
Has he assumed an unnatural role until he is at last in 
a maze of doubt about himself? ' 

4 Why does he make Rosencrantz and Guilden- 
stern confess that, they have been sent for by the King? 
Are they keen enough for him? 

5 Why does not Hamlet m.ake them tell why they 
were sent for instead of telling why himself? 

(Note how naturally the coming of the players is 
introduced.) 

6 When Polonius enters, Hamlet foresees his 
errand. Why does he say: "When Roscius was an 
actor at Rome"? 

7 Why does he refer to Jephthah? 

8 Thus far have Rosencrantz and Guildenstern 
accomplished anything ? 

9 In the conversation after the play, does Hamlet 
show any desire to make Rosencrantz and Guildenstern 
think him insane? 

lo Compare his talk with them with his talk with 
Polonius. What is his real state of mind? 

Second Movement 

1 Hamlet is now sent to England in charge of 
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Why at the time of 
starting does he send them ''a little before"? 

2 What does he mean when he tells the Queen, 
"Let it work; for 'tis sport," etc. (last of closet scene) ? 



HAMLET 293 

3 Does Hamlet suspect the contents of the com- 
mission ? 

4 How can the Hamlet who could not kill the 
King when he found him alone deliberately send his two 
friends (?) to their death? 

5 Does he have any conscience conflict over this? 

6 Do Rosencrantz and Guildenstern know the 
contents of the commission? 

7 Does Horatio condemn Hamlet for the deed? 

8 Why did not the poet allow him to live to hear 
of their death? 

9 Do )'ou think Hamlet was justifiable in thus 
changing the commission? 

IX Hamlet and Horatio 

1 What is the real dramatic purpose of Horatio 
in the play? 

2 What really active part does he take? 

3 Is he a man of action in the play? 

4 Note his appearance in the play : 

First Movement 
First, at the opening of the play, as a connecting link 

between the objective Ghost and the subjective 

ghost in Hamlet. 
Secondly, in the middle of the play, to witness the play 

to ''catch the conscience of the King." 

Second Movement 
First, merely to introduce Ophelia in Act iv in her 
wrecked mental condition. 



294 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

Secondly, accompanying Hamlet through Act v to the 
final grand tragedy. 

5 He appears only once except in connection with 
Hamlet. How does he aid Hamlet? 

6 Has Hamlet confided to him the secret of his 
father's murder? 

7 Does he aid Hamlet in laying any plans for 
revenge? Does he make any suggestions? 

8 Do we learn anything of Hamlet's experience 
that is of dramatic value, which without Horatio we 
should have no good way of finding out? 

9 Why is he so sure that Hamlet will lose the 
wager with Laertes? 

10 How do you account for the visit of Hamlet 
and Horatio to the churchyard? 

11 Why was it dramatically necessary that Horatio 
should survive the grand catastrophe? 

12 Show that Horatio is a perfectly mediated char- 
acter — that his life is a life of triumph — that he is not, 
as some would have it, good simply because he is too 
weak to be anything else. 

13 Can you see that his office at the last is to aid 
in restoring harmony to the state of Denmark, which, 
according to the ethics of the Drama, only a mediated 
character can do? 

14 Give Hamlet's estimate of Horatio. 

X Hamlet's Character 

In answering the following points, quote references, 
giving author, act and scene: 



HAMLET 295 

Outward j i His appearance before his father's death; 
Hamlet | 2 After his mother's marriage. 

j I The Instinctive or Impulsive. 

Inner j 2 The Imaginative. 

Hamlet 3 The Moral and Religious. 

4 The Intellectual or Reflective. 

1 Trace each, of these Hamlets individually 
through the play. 

2 In the subjective conflicts, which of them finally 
gets the mastery, and determines the final issue of 
Hamlet's life? 

3 Is Hamlet a well-balanced character? 

4 Is his life a failure? Why, or why not? 

5 Between Hamlet's meeting with the Ghost and 
the play there is supposed to be an interval of about 
two months ; what is he doing all this time, when he 
has declared himself so anxious to sweep to his revenge? 

6 Were Hamlet actuated by ambition for his lost 
crown, would he hesitate to kill the King? 

7 Does ambition for worldly honors contain the 
seeds of death? 

8 Hamlet is the chief "soliloquizer" of all of 
Shakespeare's characters. Why is this? 

9 Trace Hamlet through his soliloquies, giving the 
circumstances, theme and arguments of each. 

10 How many times and under what circumstances 
does he chide himself for inaction? What reasons does 
he give? Is he just to himself? 

1 1 For how many deaths is Hamlet responsible ? 
Do you think he is in any way responsible for Ophelia's 
sad end? If so. in what wav? 



296 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

12 From an ethical standpoint, does Hamlet come 
to his tragic end because he does not kill the King or 
because he kills Polonius? 

13 Make a list of Hamlet's characteristics. Give 
references. 

14 Does he always appear the same to the same 
persons? To whom is he always rational? To whom 
does he feign insanity? 

15 Who believes him insane? Who believes him 
sane? What does he think about it himself? 

16 What did Shakespeare think his condition of 
mind to be? What is your own opinion? 

17 What would be the effect upon the drama to 
leave out the insane element entirely, and have Hamlet 
work against the King in a perfectly rational way, as 
the King plans against Hamlet? Do you think it would 
in any way detract from the interest? If so, how? 

18 Try to prove: 

1 That he was insane. 

2 That he feigned insanity. 

3 That he was rational and did not feign insanity. 

19 One never knows what turn the insane mind may 
take at any moment. Do you think an artist could base 
an artistically constructed drama upon the vagaries of an 
insane man? 

XI The King 

1 What statesmanlike ability does Claudius show ? 

2 What incidents in the play bring out his ability? 

3 Were it not for his corrupt moral character, 



HAMLET 297 

what kind of a King do you think Claudius would make ? 
Compare Hamlet with him in this particular. 

4 When we are first introduced to the King, why 
does he preface business by such extended remarks 
about his family affairs? Do you see any special sig- 
nificance in it? Show how this entire speech gives the 
keynote to his character. 

5 Does Gertrude know of the character of her 
first husband's death? 

6 Does Claudius advise with Gertrude in the mak- 
ing of his plans? (Compare him with Macbeth.) 

7 What purpose does Gertrude serve in the play? 
How is she related to the State? How is she linked 
with the acts of Claudius? To what extent is she his 
partner in crime? 

8 In planning, how does Claudius always try to 
make sure of success in the end? 

9 Has he great confidence in Polonius? 

TO What do you think of his plan to bring Rosen- 
crantz and Guildernstern to court? 

11 Since Hamlet is so little disposed to act, why 
should the King fear him so much? 

12 Analyze carefully the King's discussion of his 
crime, of prayer, of repentance. What is his theory of 
each? 

13 What difference does he see between courts of 
justice in this world and above? 

14 What is the result of his conscience conflict? 

15 Do you see any evidence that, after all he. like 
the drownin<j man. clings to a straw of hope? 



298 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

i6 When Laertes returns in arms, what diplomacy 
does Claudius show in handling him? 

17 Show that when he receives news that Hamlet 
has returned, he uses the same policy in planning his 
death that he used in the murder of King Hamlet. 

18 In separate columns make a list of Claudius's 
good and bad qualities. 

19 Trace the King's crimes. 

20 Note how Claudius's original deed contains the 
element of death ; it not only brings him to death, but 
sweeps all connected with him to death ; this does not, 
however, relieve the individual of responsibility for his 
own individual deed. Show in each case how the deed 
returns upon the doer ; that is, how Nemesis follows the 
guilty individual. 



GENERAL QUESTIONS 

1 What is the dramatic purpose of Scene 3, Act i ? 

2 Of Scene i. Act 11? 

3 Give the common characteristics of the Polonius 
family. 

4 Give the individual characteristics of each mem- 
ber. 

5 Can you condemn Ophelia for perfect obedience 
to her father? Compare her with Jessica. 

6 As a character in the play what purpose does she 
serve ? 

7 Is there any dramatic purpose in making revenge 



HAMLET 299 

instead of justice the basis of Hamlet's action? What 
obstacles are in. his way? 

8 Compare Hamlet and Laertes as men of action. 

9 Why does the poet send Hamlet to school to 
Wittenberg and Laertes to Paris? Can you imagine 
Laertes in Wittenberg? 

10 What could Hamlet gain by feigning insanity? 

1 1 Do you base your estimate of Hamlet's character 
upon what he says of himself or upon what others say 
of him? 

12 The King has committed a deed which he knows 
ought to be atoned for ; he discusses the duty of repent- 
ance. Hamlet has left undone a deed which he knows 
he ought to do; he discusses the duty of revenge. Com- 
pare the arguments of the two, point by point. 

13 State the theories of the immortality of the soul 
given in the play ; make a list of quotations on this 
subject. 

14 What is the dramatic purpose of the Norway 
episode? Do you think the drama would be weakened 
by leaving it out? Why, or why not? 

15 Where is the play relieved by traces of humor? 

16 Can you imagine that Hamlet might have been 
at all humorous before his life was saddened ? 

17 Account for the grave-diggers' scene ; has it an\ 
dramatic purpose? 

18 Can you see any place where the play miglii 
have been relieved by music? Compare with The Mer- 
chant of Venice. What use does Hamlet make of the 
recorders ? 



300 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

19 Many quotations from this drama are very 
familiar. Make a list of them by act and scene. 

20 Memorize the Christmas legend given by Mar- 
cellus; the soliloquy beginning "To be or not to be"; 
Hamlet's discourse on the grandeur of man, and as many 
others that you would like to remember as you can. 

21 Compare the Hamlet drama with other plays 
you have read — in completeness of dramatic structure; 
in the use of the supernatural as an element of the play ; 
in theories of life, death and immortality ; in points of 
information on various topics. 

22 Hamlet has been called The Sphinx of Litera- 
ture, and Hamlet himself has been called a Sphinx. 
Why? 

23 What is the theme of the drama? 

24 What is the moral? 

25 What was the germ thought which prompted the 
poet to write the play? 

26 Schlegel says : ''Hamlet is a tragedy of thought," 
Is the real tragedy the objective conflict which we see 
ending in the final grand catastrophe, or is it the tragedy 
of Hamlet's life? 

2y Does Shakespeare ever make the moral element 
secondary to any other? 

28 At what period of Shakespeare's life was this 
drama written? Had he solved the problem himself? 

29 What have you gained from the study of Shake- 
speare? Have you gained power to enable 3'OU to inter- 
pret better the thoughts of great writers? 



HAMLET 301 

SCHEME FOR OUTLINE BOOK* 

Hanilet — Macbeth 

I — The Drama. 

1 Legendary. 

a Tragedy: (i) Real; (2) Ideal, 
b Comedy: (i) Real; (2) Ideal. 

2 Historical. 
Classify the play. 

II The Play. 

1 Classify Hamlet (or Macbeth) according to the 

outline of the drama given above ; show how it 
belongs under each division. 

2 Give the basis of the plot. 

3 Show the basis of the action. 

4 Group the principal characters of the play accord- 

ing to their relationship to the following in 
outline form : 

1 The State. 

2 The Family. 

3 The deed committed. 

4 The Ethical World. 

5 Make a diagram of the entrance and exits of the 

characters. 

6 Give the references in the play, by act and scene, 

and the lines containing them, to the super- 
natural, and state the use made of it in the play. 



♦This schemp i.s presented here because it shows thi- work which 
has been done by classes in the third year of the liiph school. When 
It was given, one section of the class was studying Ifaiitht with one 
teacher, and another section was stiidyinpr Murhrih with another 
teacher; the same scheme was given to both sections. 



302 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

7 Quotations: Give two on each of the following 
and five others of your own choice: 

1 Patriotism. 

2 Friendship. 

3 Love. 

4 Beautiful sentiments. 

5 Religious sentiments. 

Ill Home Reading. 
Group I 

1 King Lear, 

2 Tempest. 

3 Cymbelme. 

4 Richard III. 
Group II 

1 Romeo and Juliet. 

2 Much Ado. 

3 A Winter's Tale. 

4 / Henry IV. 

Answer the following questions with each play of the 
group read : 

1 Who causes the catastrophe? 

2 What was the misdeed of the individual? 

3 State the result of bringing the individual face to 

face with his misdeed. 

4 Quotations : One from each act of each of the plays 

read. 

SUGGESTIVE TOPICS FOR ESSAYS AND DISCUSSION 

1 Hamlet's insanity. 

2 Hamlet and the Ghost. 



HAMLET 303 

3 The Moral Hamlet. 

4 The Impulsive Hamlet. 

5 The Reflective Hamlet. 

6 Hamlet and his mother. 

7 Hamlet and Ophelia. 

8 Hamlet and Polonius. 

9 Hamlet as a man of action. 

10 Hamlet as a man of inaction. 

11 Hamlet and Laertes (compared). 

12 Hamlet's transformation. 

13 Ophelia. 

14 The Queen. 

15 The King. 

16 Polonius. 

17 The Ghost and Ghost-seer. 

18 The closet scene. 

19 The Norway episode. 

20 Love, friendship and duty. 

21 The religious thought in the play. 

22 Hamlet and Macbeth — the men. 

23 Claudius and Macbeth. 

24 Gertrude and Lady Macbeth. 

25 Hamlet's revenge and the King's repentance. 

26 Theory of life from Polonius's stantlpoint. 

27 Theory of life from the French standpoint com- 
pared with the German. 

28 Hamlet as a Drama. (In fullness and complete- 
ness compare with other plays read.) 



304 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

COMPARATIVE STUDY 

/ The Plays of Hamlet and Macbeth 

1 Shakespeare's only plays having the scene laid 
in northern Europe, that is, north of England. 

2 Both deal with royalty. 

3 Both contain a strong flavor of the historical. 

4 Both are named from the character in whom the 
chief interest centers. 

5 Hamlet is Shakespeare's longest play. Macbeth 
the shortest of his serious plays (2,109 hues, Globe 
Edition). 

Hamlet is noted for the great number of lines which 
he speaks, Macbeth for the few lines which he speaks. 

6 Shakespeare's only Ideal Tragedies. 

7 The only plays in which the supernatural as a 
motive is objective. 

8 In each a deed has been done, before the play 
opens, which becomes an incentive to action. 

9 Both plays open with the supernatural element. 
10 In both this element appears again at the climax 

of the play. 

Study to carry this line of comparison still farther. 
Compare in the following points : 

1 The character of the deed committed before the 
opening of the plays. 

2 This deed in each, as an incentive to action. 

3 Character of the action. 

4 Character of. the supernatural element. 

5 The office of this element in the plays. 

6 Its relation to the Ethical World. 



HAMLET 305 

7 The moral element in the plays. 

8 The religious element. 

9 The institution of the State. 

10 The institution of the Family. 

11 Definiteness of characterization. 

12 Nature — reference to the elements; to animals; 
to plants. 

13 Music in the plays. 

14 Humor in the plays. 

15 As acting plays. 

16 Which will hold the interest of an audience 
better? 

17 As a reading play, which is the more interesting 
study ? 

18 Which has more strong types of character? 

19 Which is more universal ; that is, in which do 
we find more characteristics of all mankind ? 

20 Which is more generally quoted from? 

21 Which would you rather know thoroughly? 
Why? 

// Hamlet and Macbeth — The Men 

Compare in the following points : 

1 Attitude toward the supernatural ; comparative 
influence over each of the supernatural. 

2 Ambition for power. 

3 Courage — physical and moral. 

4 Intellectual culture. 

5 As men of impulse and of reflection. 

6 As men of action. 



306 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

7 Moral and spiritual sense. 

8 Their soliloquies as an index to character. 

9 Do the characteristics of the two men in any way 
account for the length of the two plays? 

10 Show that Hamlet belonged to the advancing 
Christian age, and that Macbeth belonged to the past 
heroic age. (For the latter see Macbeth, Act iii, 
Scene 4.) 

11 Show how inaction may have been an element 
in Hamlet's tragic end, and hasty action in Macbeth's. 

12 Were they to exchange places, what would be 
the result? 

Ill The King and Macbeth 

Compare in the following points : 

1 Nature of their foul deed. 

2 Motive for the deed. 

3 Manner of the deed. 

4 Influences brought to bear upon the doer. 

5 Effect of the deed upon the doer. 

6 Effect upon the State. 

7 Effect upon the Family. 

8 As men of action and of deliberation. 

9 Statesmanlike qualities. 

10 In subtile adroitness. 

11 Moral nature. 

12 In their family relations. 

13 As kings. 

14 What would be the result of making them 
change places? 



HAMLET 307 

15 Which has more characteristics that you can 
respect or admire? What are these characteristics? 

16 If it were possible to eHminate the bad qiiaHties 
and keep the good, which would make the better man? 

IV The Queen and Lady Macbeth 

Compare : 

1 In their relations to the deed. 

2 In character — moral and spiritual ; in strength 
of character. 

3 In the family relations, as wives, as mothers. 

4 As queens. 

5 As to womanhood. 

6 In the manner of their death. Can you give any 
ethical cause for the difference? 

7 Would Claudius have committed murder to 
secure Lady Macbeth for his wife? 

8 Which would have the more dangerous influence 
in society? 

9 Make a list of the characteristics in each which 
you could admire. 

10 What would be result of making them change 
places ? 

Miscellaneous 

1 Compare Banquo and Horatio. 

2 Compare Banquo and Polonius. 

3 Compare Lady Macbeth and Ophelia. 

4 Had Ophelia been Macbeth's wife, do you think 
he would have killed Duncan? 



208 NOTES 



NOTES 309 



310 NOTES 



NOTES 311 



B12 NOTES 



A SMALL SHAKESPEAREAN LIBRARY 

I Complete Works 

A single-play edition if possible. Rolfe and Hudson are 
always standard ; the notes and introductory matter are both 
satisfactory and reliable. The Arden Shakespeare, published by 
D. C. Heath, is good. The Altemus edition is inexpensive ; is 
good as to paper and print; contains an excellent introduction 
and the original story or the old play upon which the plot is 
supposed to be founded, but has no explanatory notes. Charlotte 
Porter and Helen A. Clarke are editing a "First Folio" edition; 
this is a reprint of the original first folio of 1623, for the first 
time made accessible to ordinary readers ; besides the text, it 
contains full notes, a glossary and a great deal of very valuable 
matter; at present writing (October, 1906) nine plays have been 
published : A Midsommer Night's Dreame ; Love's Labour's 
Lost ; The Gomedie of Errors ; The Merchant of Venice ; The 
Tragedie of Macbeth ; The Tragedie of Julius Caesar ; The 
Tragedie of Hamlet ; The Tragedie of King Lear ; Twelfe 
Night. The price is fifty cents each, published by Thomas Y. 
Crowell, New York. 

2 Life of Shakespeare 

A Life of William Shakespeare. Sidney Lee; Macmillan 
(1891) ; $1.75. This is a book of 445 pages, 57 of which form 
an appendix which contains very valuable matter throwing light 
upon contested points. Mr. Lee has taken great pains thoroughly 
to investigate all sources of information, and may be considered 
entirely reliable. An abridgment of this work is published for 
80 cents. Those who would read Shakespeare's autobiography 
into the Sonnets should carefully and with unprejudiced mind 
read the results of Mr. Lee's investigation on this topic. 

Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps ; 
Longmans, Green & Co.; revised edition, 1,000 pp.. 2 vols.. $6.00. 
Contains reprints of original documents, is thoroughly reliable, 

313 



314 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

considered a court of final resort, and very valuable for ref- 
erence. 

William Shakespeare: A critical study. George Brandes. 
Macmillan ; 2 vols., $8.00, abridged edition, $2.60. This book 
might more appropriately be styled "The Evolution of the Life 
and Writings of Shakespeare." It gives the life and writings 
of the great dramatist in their historical settings, showing him 
in the process of development. It is not only a book to be read 
but a readable book. 

William Shakespeare, Poet, Dramatist and Man. Hamilton 
Wright Mabie. Macmillan (1901) ; third edition, 100 illustra- 
tions, $2.00. This book is delightful reading. 

Nearly all of the Commentaries on Shakespeare contain a 
brief sketch of his life — those of Q^rvinus, Dowden, Hudson, 
and others. 

3 Dramatic Structure and Interpretative Criticism 

The Shakespearian Drama: A Commentary. Denton J. Snider. 
Sigma Publishing Co., St. Louis; 3 vols. (The Tragedies, The 
Comedies, The Histories), $1.50 each. Dr. Snider throws new 
light upon the structural lines of the Shakespearean drama; the 
interpretations are from an ethical standpoint and abundantly 
repay thoughtful study. 

Shakespeare as a Dramatic Artist. Richard G. Moulton. 
Macmillan; $1.90. Treats of dramatic structure, illustrated by 
studies of several plays. 

The Moral System of Shakespeare. Richard G. Moulton. 
Macmillan (1903) ; $1.50. Interprets the poet from an ethical 
standpoint; shows the unity of Shakespeare's dramas and the 
moral system running throughout his works. The appendix 
contains a plot scheme for every play. This book should be read 
by every interested student of Shakespeare. 

Shakespeare Commentaries. Dr. G. G. Gervinus. Scribner 
(1892) ; $4.90 net. This is an ethical interpretation of the great 
poet by an eminent German critic who is acknowledged authority 
in this Hne of thought. Once knowing this volume we turn to it 
again and again. 



A SMALL SHAKESPEAREAN LIBRARY 315 

Sliakspcaic's Dramatic Art: History and characters of 
Shakspeare's Plays. Dr. Hermann Ulrici. Macmillan ; 2 vols., 
$1.00 each. Ulrici is a devoted and systematic Shakespearean 
student and scholar. 

Shakespeare, Life and Works. William C. Hazlitt. Scribner 
(1817) ; $2.50. 

Notes and Lectures on Shakespeare and other dramatists, 
being \'ol. IV of the complete works of Samuel Taylor Coler- 
idge, published by Harper ; $2.00. Also Lectures on Shakespeare, 
Coleridge, published by Macmillan; $1.00. Mr. Lee considers 
Coleridge and Hazlitt "the best representatives of the aesthetic 
school in this or any other country," although he says: "Pro- 
fessor Dowden in his 'Mind and Art' (1874) and Mr. Swin- 
burne in his 'Study of Shakespeare' (1880), as worthy followers 
of Coleridge and Hazlitt, remain unsurpassed." 

Shakspere : A Critical Study of His Mind and Art. Edward 
Dowden. Harper; $1.75. Also, by the same author, Shakspere 
Primer, American Book Company ; 35 cents. Mr. Dowden is a 
generally accepted interpreter of Shakespeare, and is very helpful. 

Shakespeare: His Life, Art, and Characters. The Rev. H. N. 
Hudson. Ginn & Co. ; 2 vols., $4.00. Very appreciative, and 
especially interesting and valuable from the artistic standpoint. 

The Bible in Shakespeare. William Burgess. Winona Pub- 
lishing Company; Chicago (1903) : $i-50. The title explains the 
book. It is a wonderful study. 

Characteristics of Women. Mrs. Jameson. Houghton Mifflin 
& Co.; $1.25. Too well known to need special mention. 

Five Lectures. Bernhard ten Brink. Henry Holt; $1.25. 
Very interesting, though not designed for reference. 

Shakespearean Tragedy. Hamlet, Othello, King Lear. Mac- 
beth. A. C. Bradley. Macmillan (1904); $3-5o. Fine interpre- 
tation of tragedy. 

Shakespeare, The Man and his Works. Being all the Subject- 
Matter about Shakespeare Contained in Moulton's Library of 
Literary Criticism. Sibley & Co., Boston (1904) ; 361 PP- Three 
hundred and seven writers are represented. 



316 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

4 For Reference Only 

A New and Complete Concordance. John Bartlett. Macmillan ; 
1901 pp., $7.50. Invaluable for reference. One reviewer says of 
this work : "Mr. Bartlett's great volume supplies absolute com- 
pleteness and furnishes a concordance to Shakespeare's works 
that is invaluable, and that may never be improved upon. . . . 
Its accuracy is indisputable." 

5 Development of the English Drama 

History of English Dramatic Literature. A. W. Ward. Mac- 
millan ; 3 vols., $9.00. 

Shakespeare's Predecessors in the English Drama. John 
Addington Symonds. Scribner (1884) ; $2.00. 

English Religious Drama. Katherine Lee Bates. Macmillan; 
$1.50. 

Technique of the Drama. Gustav Freytag. Scott; $1.50. 

For short sketches see Hudson's Life, Art and Characters and 
History of Elizabethan Literature, by Saintsbury (Macmillan, 
$1.00). 

Development of English Literature. Welsh, Dowden, Brooke 
and others. 

This list comprises only a very few selections from the number 
whose name is legion. Perhaps no one is absolutely reliable upon 
every point, but we think these may be safely recommended as a 
nucleus for a private or school library. 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 



Index to Characters 

Authority por Pronunciation 



The Century Dictionary of names is the principal authority 
for pronunciation in this Index. 
W. indicates Webster. 
S. indicates The Standard. 



Diacritical Markings 

a (short) as in at, fat. 

a (long) as in mate, fate. 

a (ah) as in far, father. 

a (aw) as in awe, fall, talk. 

a as in ask, class. 

a as in fare, hair. 

e (short) as in pet, less. 

e (long) as in mete,'^fieet. 

e as in her, fern. 

i (short) as in it, pin. 

I (long) as in line, find. 

o (short) as in on, not. 

6 (long) as in note, door. 

6 (oo) as in move, room. 

6 as in nor, off. 

u (short) as in but, tub. 

u (long) as in flute, use. 

u as in pull, book. 

u German ii, French u. 

n French, nasal. 

s as in leisure. 

t as in nature. 

%has in than. 

Primary accent is indicated by '; secondary by ". 

In an miaccented syllable, the variable sound of a vowel 
which often becomes short u, as c in prudent, is indicated l)y 
the itahc, as in Webster; the Century indicates tliis sound by 
two dots under the vowel. 



322 STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 

The lightening of a vowel in an unaccented syllable, as, a in 
courage, is indicated in the Century by one dot under the vowel; 
it is not indicated in this index. This sound occurs in the fol- 
lowing words: 

One dot under a — 

Chamberlain, Lord (cham'berlan) 

Flaminius (fia-min'i-us) 

Hecate (hek'a-te) 

Laertes (la-er'tez) 

Michael (mf ka-el) 

Mowbray (mo'bra) 
One dot under e — 

Artemidorus (ar"te-mi-do'rus) 

Benedick (ben'e-dik) 

Cleomenes (kle-om'e-nez) 

Emilia (e-mil'i-a) 

Nerissa (ne-ris'sa) 

Orleans (6r-le-anz) 

Pisanio (pe-sa'ne-6) both e's 

Proteus (pro'te-us) 

Thesus (the'se-us) 

Verges (ver'ges) 
One dot under o — 

Andronicus (an-dro-ni'kus) 

Antigonous (an-tig'6-nus) 

Antiochus (an-ti'o-kus) 

Antipholus (an-tif'o-lus) 

Antony (an'to-ni) 

Cleopatra (kle-o-pa'tra) 

Coriolanus (ko"ri-o-la'nus) 

Deiphobus (de-if'o-bus) 

Gregory (greg'o-ri) 

Hermione (her-ml'-o-ne) 

Holoferiies (hol-o-fer'nez) 

Imogen (im'o-jen) 

Leonine (le'o-nin) 

Morocco (mo-rok'-o) 

Polonius (p6-l6'ni-us) 

Viola (vi'o-la) 

Volumnia (v5-lum'ni-a) 

Westmoreland (west'mor-land) 

Willoughby (wil'o-bi) 
One dot under u — 

Capulet (kap'u-let) 

Euphronius (u-fro'ni-us) first u. 

Trinculo (trin'cu-lo) 

Ursula (er'su-la) 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 323 

AARON, (ar'on) a Moor belo\^ed by Ta- 

"^o^"^- Titus Andronicus. 

Abergavenny, (ab-er-ga'ni or ab"er-ga-ven'i) 

Lord. Henry Vlll. 

Abhorson, (ab-hor'son) an executioner. Measure for Mea.su re. 

Abram, (a'bram) or Abraham, a'bra-ham) 

servant to Montague. Romeo and Juliet. 

Achilles, (a-kil'ez) Grecian commander. Troilus and Cressida. 

Adam, (ad'am) old man, servant to Oliver. As You Like it. 

Adrian, (a'dri-an) Lord. The Tempest. 

Adriana, (a-dri-a'na) wife of Antipholus of 

Ephesus. Comedy of Errors. 

.^geon, (e-je'on) merchant of Syracuse. Comedy of Errors. 

^millia, (emiri-a) wife of ^geon. Comedy of Errors. 

yEmilius, (e-miri-us) a noble Roman. Titus Andronicus. 

^Eneas, (e-ne-as) Trojan commander. Troilus and Cressida. 

Agamemnon, (ag-a-mem'non) Grecian gen- 
eral. Troilus and Cressida. 

Agrippa, (a-grip'a) friend to Ca?sar. Antony and Cleopatra 

Agrippa, Menenius, friend to Coriolanus. Coriolanus. 

Ague-cheek, (a'gu-chek) Sir Andrew. Twelfth Night. 

Ajax, (a-jaks) Grecian commander. Troilus and Cressida. 

Alarbus, (a-lar'bus) son of Tamora. Titus Andronicus. 

Albany, (arba-ni) Duke of. King Lear. 

Alcibiades, (al-si-bi'a-dez) Athenian gen- 
eral. Timon of Athens. 

Alen(;;on. (ii-loii-son) Duke of. 1 Henry VI. 

Alexander, (al-eg-zan'der) servant to Cres- 
sida. ■ Troilus and Cressida. 

Alexas, (a-lek'sas) attendant on Cleopatra. Antony and Cleopatr:i 

Alice, (al'is) attendant on Katherine. Henry V. 

Alonzo, (a-lon'z6) King of Naples. The Tempest. 

Amiens, (ii-me-an) attendent on the Duke. As You Like It. 

Andromache, (an-drom'a-ke) wife to Hec- 
tor. Troilus ;ind Crcs.sid; 

Andronicus, (an-dro-nl'kus) Marcus, a trib- Titus Andron'icus, 
une. or (ni'kus). 

Andronicus, Titus, a noble Roman. Titus Andronicus. 

Angelo, (an'je-lo) a goldsmith. Comedy of Errors 



324 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Angelo, deputy in the Duke's absence. 
Angus, (ang'gus) a noblenmn of Scotland. 
Anne, (an) widow of Edward of Wales, 

married to Richard III. 
Anterior, Trojan commander. 
Antigonous, (an-tig'o-nus) Sicilian lord. 
Antiochus, (an-ti'o-kus) King of Antioch. 
Antipholus, (an-tif'o-lus) "1 

of Ephesus. [ twin brothers. 

Antipholus, of Syracuse. J 
Antonio, (an-to'ni-o) brother to Prospero. 
Antonio, friend to Sebastian. 
Antonio, brother to Leonato. 

Antonio, a merchant of Venice. 
Antonio, father to Proteus. 

Antony, (an'to-ni) Marcus, friend to Caesar 
Antony, Marcus, triumvir (same as above). 

Apem.antus, (ap-e-man'tus) churlish phil- 
osopher. 

Archbishop of Canterbury. 

Archduke of Austria. 

Archibald, (ar'chi-bald) Earl of Douglas. 

Archidamus, (ar-ki-da'mus) Bohemian lord. 

Ariel, (a'ri-el) an airy s-pirit. 

Armado, (ar-ma'do) Don Adriano de. 

Arragon, (ar'a-gon) Prince of, 

Artemidorus (ar^^te-mi-do'rus) a sophist. 

Arthur (ar'thwr) Duke of Bretagne. 

Arviragus, (ar-vir'a-gus) son to Cymbeline, 
supposed son to Belarius. 

Athenian, an old. 

Audrey, (a'dri) a country wench. 

Aufidius, (a-fid'i-us) Tullius, general of the 
Volscians. 

Aumerle, Duke of, son to Duke of York. 

Autolycus, (a-tol'i-kus) a thieving peddler. 

Auvergne, (o-varny') Countess of. 



Measure for Measure. 
Macbeth. 

Richard III. 
Troilus and Cressida. 
Winter's Tale. 
Pericles. 

Comedy of Errors. 

The Tempest. 
Twelfth Night. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Merchant of Venice. 
Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
Julius Caesar. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 

Timon of Athens. 
Henry V. 
King John. 
llHenry IV. 
Winter's Tale. 
The Tempest. 
Love's Labour's Lost. 
Merchant of Venice.- 
Julius Caesar. 
King John. 

Cymbeline. 
Timon of Athens. 
As You Like It. 

Coriolanus. 
Richard 11. 
Winter's Tale. 
1 Henry VI. 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 



325 



BAGOT, (bag'ot) servant to King Richard. Richard 11. 



Balthazar, (bal-tha'z//r) a merchant. 
Balthazar, servant to Romeo. 
Balthazar, servant to Portia. 
Balthazar, sevrant to Don Pedro. 



Comedy of Errors. 
Romeo and Juliet, 
Merchant of Venice. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Banquo, (bang'kwo) general in King's army. Macbeth. 
Baptista, (l:)ap-tis't(0 gentleman of Padua. Taming of the Shrew, 
r (bar'dolf) follower of Falstaff 1, 2 Henry IV. 



Bardolph, J follower of Falstaff. 

L now soldier in the army. 
Bardolph, Lord. 

Barnadine, (biir'na-din) a prisoner. 
Ba-^sanio, (ba-sa'ni-o) friend to Antonio. 
Basset, (bas'et) Red Rose. 
Bassianus, (bas-i-a'nus) in love with La- 

vinia. 
Bates, (bats) a soldier in King's army. 
Beatrice, (be'a-tris or tres) niece to Leonato. 



Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 
Henry V. 
2 Henry IV. 
Measure for Measure. 
Merchant of A'enice. 
1 Henry VI. 

Titus Andronicus. 

Henry V. 

Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
1. Henry VI. 
1, 2. Henry VI. 
1. Henry VI. 



Beaufort (bufort) Thomas, Duke of Exeter 
Beaufort, Henry, Bishop of Winchester. 
Beaufort, John, Earl of Somerset. 
Bedford, (bed'ford) Duke of, 

brother to King Henry V. Henry V. 

uncle to King Henry VI. 1 Henry VI. 

Belarius, (be-la'ri-us) banished lord. Cymbeline. 

Belch, (belch) Sir Toby, uncle to Olivia. Twelfth Night. 
Benedick, (ben'e-dik) a young lord of Padua. Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Benvolia, (ben-vo'li-o) a friend to Romeo 
Berkeley, (berk'li or biirk'li) lord. 
Berkeley, attendant on Lady Anne. 
Bernardo, (ber-niir-do) officer. 
Bertram, (ber'tr«m) Count of Rousillon. 



Bevis, George, follower of Cade. 
Bianca, (bi-an'ka) mistress to Cassio. 



Romeo and Juliet. 

Richard II. 

Richard III. 

Hamlet. 

All's Well That 

Ends Well. 
2 Henry VI. 
Othello. 



326 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Bianca, sister to Katharina. 

Bigot, (big'ot) Robert, Earl of Norfolk. 

Biondello, (be-on-del'lo) servant to Lu- 

centio. 
Biron, (be-ron') attendant on king. 
Bishop of Lincoln. 

Blanche, (blanch) niece to King John. 
Blount, (blunt) Sir James. 
Blunt, (blunt) Sir Walter, friend to King. 
Bolingbroke, (bol'ing-briik) a conjurer. 
Bolingbroke, Henry, son to John of Gaunt. 
Bona, (b6'n«) sister to French Queen. 
Borachio, (bo-ra'cho) follower of Don John. 

Bottom, (bot'um) the weaver. 

Boult, (bolt) a servant. 

Bourbon, (bor'bon) Duke of, 

Bourchier, (bor'chi-er) Cardinal. 

Boyet, (bwa-yaO attendant on Princess of 
France. 

Brabantio, (bra-ban'shio) father of Desde- 
mona. 

Brakenbury, Sir Robert, lieutenant of 
Tower. 

Brandon, (bran'don) sergeant-at-arms. 

Brutus, (bro'tus) Junius, tribune. 

Brutus, Marcus, a conspirator. 

Brutus, Decius, a conspirator. 

Buckingham, (buk'ing-am) Duke of, 

Buckingham, Duke of, 

Bullcalf, (bul'kaf) a recruit. 

Bullen, (biil'en) Anne, maid of honor, after- 
wards Queen. 

Burgh, Hubert de, (berg, hu'bert) Cham- 
berlain to King. 

Burgundy, (ber'gun-di) Duke of, 

Burgvuidy, Duke of, 

Burgundy, Duke of, 



Taming of the Shrew. 
King John. 

Taming of the Shrew. 
Love's Labour's Lost. 
Henry VIII. 
King John. 
Richard III. 

1. Henry IV. 

2. Henry VI. 
Richard II. 

3 Henry VI. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Midsummer-Night 's 

Dream . 
Pericles. 
Henry V. 
Richard III. 

Love's Labour's Lost. 

Othello. 

Richard III. 
Henry VIII. 
Coriolanus. 
Julius Csesar. 
Julius Csesar. 
2. Henry VI. 
Henry VIII. 
2. Henry IV. 

Henry VIIL 

King John. 
Lear. 
Henry V. 
1 Henry VI. 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 



327 



Bushy, (biish'i) servant to the King. Richard II. 

Butts, (biits) Doftor. Henry VIII. 



CADE, (kad) Jack, a rebel. 
Caesar, (se'zar) Julius. 
Ca>sar, Octavius, afterward triumvir. 
Caesar, Octavius, triumvir. 

Caithness, (kath'ness) nobleman of Scot- 
land. 
Caius, (ka'yus) Dr., French physician. 

Calchas, (kal'kas) Trojan priest taking 
part with Greeks. 

Caliban, (kal'i-ban) a savage deformed 
slave. 

Calpurnia, (kal-per'ni-a) wife to Caesar. 

Cambridge, (kam'brij) Earl of, 

Camillo, (ka-mil'o) Sicilian lord. 

Campeius, Cardinal. 

Canidius, (ka-nid'-us) lient. -general to An- 
tony. 

Canterbury, (kan'ter-ber-i) Archbishop of, 

Caphis, (ka'fis) servant to Timon's credi- 
tors. 

Capucius, (ka-piVshius) ambassador from 
Charles V. 

Capulet, (kap'u-let) Lord. 

Capulet, Lady, his wife. 

Carlisle, (kar'lll') Bishop of, 

Casca, (kas'k//) a conspirator. 

Cassandra, (ka-san'dra) daughter to Priam. 

Cassio, (kash'io) lieutenant to Othello. 

Cassius, (kash'i-us) leading conspirator. 

Catesby, (kats'bi) Sir William. 

Cato, (ka'to) young friend to Brutus. 

Celia, (se'li-o) daughter to Frederick. 

Ceres, (se'rez) a spirit. 

Cerimon, (ser'i-mon) a lord of Ephesus. 



2 Henry VI. 
Julius Ca?sar. 
Julius Ca>sar. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 

Macbeth. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 

Troilus and Cressida. 

The Tempest. 
Julius Caesar. 
Henry V. 
Winter's Tale. 
Henry VIII. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Henry V. 

Timon of Athens. 

Henry VIII. 
Romeo and Juliet. 
Romeo and Juliet. 
Richard II, 
Julius Caesar. 
Troilus and Cressida. 
Othello. 
Julius Caesar. 
Richard III. 
Julius Ca\sar. 
As You Like It. 
The Tempest. 
Pericles. 



328 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Charles VI, (charlz) King of France. 

Charles, Dauphin of France. 

Charles, the wrestler. 

Charmian, (char'mi-an) attendant on Cleo- 
patra. 

Chatham, (chat'am) clerk of, 

Chatillon, (sha-te-yori) Ambassador from 
France. 

Chiron, (kl'ron) son to Tamora. 

Cicero, (sis'e-ro) a senator. 

Cimber, (sim'ber) (S) Metullus, conspira- 
tor. 

Cinna, (sin'a) a conspirator. 

Cinna, a poet. 

Claudio, (kla'di-o) a young gentlemen. 

Claudio, a young lord of Florence. 

Claudius, (klaMi-us) servant to Brutus. 
Claudius, King of Denmark, uncle to 

Hamlet. 
Cleomenes, (kle-om'e-nez) a Sicilian lord. 
Cleon, (kle'on) governor of Tharsus. 
Cleopatra, (kle-6-pa'tra) Queen of Egypt. 

Clifford, (khf'ord)_Lord. 

Clifford, his son. 

Clitus, (kli'tus) servant to Brutus. 

Cloten, (klo'ten) son to Queen; step-son 

to Cymbeline. 
Cobweb, (kob'web) a fairy. 

Coleville, Sir John. 

Cominius, general against Volscians. 

Conrade, (kon'rad) follower of Don John. 

Constable, (kun'sta-bl) of France. 
Constance, (kon'stans) mother to Prince 

Arthur. 
Cordelia, (kor-deFia) daughter to Lear. 



Henry V. 

1 Henry VI. 
As You Like It. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 

2 Henry VI. 

King John. 
Titus Andronicus. 
Julius Csesar. 

Julius Csesar. 
Julius Caesar. 
Julius Csesar. 
Measure for Measure. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Julius Csesar. 

Hamlet. 
Winter's Tale. 
Pericles. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
2, 3 Henry VI. 
2 Henry VI. 
Julius Csesar. 

Cymbeline. 
Midsummer-Night's 

Dream. 
2 Henry IV. 
Coriolanus. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Henry V. 

King John. 
King Lear. 



INDEX TO CHARACTTERS 



329 



Corin, (ko'rin) a shepherd. 

Coriolaniis, (ko"n-o-la'niis) a noble Roman. 

Cornelius, (kor-ne'lius) a physician. 

Cornelius, a courtier. Ambassador to Nor- 
way. 

Cornwall, (k6rn^val) Duke of, 

Costard, (kos'tard) a clown. 

Court; (kort) a soldier in King's army. 

Cranmer, (kran'mer) Archbishop of Can- 
terbury. 

Cressida, (kres'i-da) daughter to Calchas. 

Cromwell, (krum'wel or krom'wel) servant 
to Wolsey. 

Curan, (kur'an) a courtier. 

Curio, (ku'ri-o) attendant to the Duke. 

Curtis, (ker'tis) servant to Petruchio. 



As Yo»i Like It. 

Coriolanus. 

Cymbeline. 

Hamlet. 

King Lear. 

Love's Labour's Lost. 

Henry V. 

Henry VIIL 
Troilus and Cressida. 

Henry VIII. 
King Lear. 
Twelfth Night. 
Taming of the 



Shrew, 



Cymbeline, (sim'be-lin) King of Britain. Cymbeline. 



DARDANIUS, (dar-da'ni-us) servant to 

Brutus. 
Davy, (da'vi) servant to Shallow. 
Deiphobus, (de-if'o-bus) son to Priam. 
Demetrius, (de-me'tri-us) son to Tamora. 
Demetrius, friend to Antony. 

Demetrius, in love with Hermia. 

Dennis, (den'is) servant to Oliver, 

Denny, Sir Anthony. 

Dercetas, (der'se-tas) friend to Antony. 

Desdemona, (dez-de-mo'nd) daughter to 

Brabantio. 
Diana, (di-an'a or di-a'na) 
Diana, daughter to the Widow. 

Dick, (dik) follower of Jack Cade. 



Julius Caesar. 
2 Henry IV. 
Troilus and Cressida. 
.Titus Andronicus. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Midsummer-Night 's 

Dream. 
As You Like It. 
Henry VIII. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 

Othello. 
Pericles. 
All's Well That 

Ends Well. 
2 Henry VI. 



330 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Diomedes, (di-6-me'dez) Grecian com- 
mander. 
Diomedes, attendant on Cleopatra. 

Dion, (di'on; Sicilian lord. 
Dionyza, (di-o-nl'za) wife to Cleon. 
Dogberry, (dog'ber-i) foolish officer. 

Dolabella, (dol-a-bel'la) friend to Caesar. 

Donalbain, (don'al-ban) son of Duncan. 
Don Pedro, (pe'dro) Prince of Arragon. 

Don John, (jon) his bastard brother. 

Dorcas, (dor'kas) a shepherdess. 
Dorset, (dor'set) Marquis of, son to Lady 
Grey. 

Dromio, (dro'mi-o) (W) f *™ brothers, 
of Ephesus. ] servants 

Dromio, of Syracuse, ^° ^^^ ^^^ 

[ Antipholus's. 

Duke, (duke) (W) in exile. 

Duke of Austria. 

Duke of Florence. 

Duke of Milan, father to Silvia. 

Duke of Venice. 

Duke of Venice. 

Dull, (dul) a constaWe. 

Dumain, (du-man') attendant on King. 

Duncan, (dung'kan) King of Scotland. 



Troilus and Cressida. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Winter's Tale. 
Pericles. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Macbeth. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Winter's Tale. 

Richard III. 



Comedy of Errors. 

As You Like It. 
King John. 
All's Well That 

Ends Well. 
Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
Merchant of Venice. 
Othello. 

Love's Labour's Lost. 
Love's Labour's Lost. 
Macbeth. 



EDGAR, (ed'gar) son to Gloster. King Lear. 

Edmund, (ed'mund) bastard son to Gloster. King Lear. 
Edmund, of Langley, uncle to King. Richard II. 

Edmund, Earl of Rutland; son of Richard 

Plantagenet. 3 Henry VI. 



INDEX TO CIIAIUCTERS 33i 

Edward, (ed'ward) Earl of March, son of 

Richard Phmtageiiet. 2, 3 Henry VI. 
Edward, Prince of Wales, son to Henry 

VI. 3 Henry VI. 
Edward IV., King of England, (Earl of 

March). Richard III. 

Edward, Prince of Wales, (Edward \). Richard III. 

Egeus, (e-je'us) father to Hermia. Midsunimer-Xight's 

l)ream. 

Eglamour, (egTa-mor). Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 

Elbow, (ei'bo) a simple constable. Measure for Measure. 

Eleanor, (el'a-nor) Duchess of Gloster. 2 Henry VI. 
Elinor, (e-li-nor) (W) mother to King 

John. King John. 
Elizabeth, (e-liz'a-beth) Queen of Edward 

IV, Lady Grey. Richard III. 

Ely, (e'li) Bishop of, Henry V. 

Emilia, (e-mil-ia) attendant on Queen. Winter's Tale. 

Emilia, wife to lago. Othello. 

Enobarbus, (en-6-bar'bus) friend to An- Antony and 

tony. Cleopatra. 

Eros, (e'ros) friend to Antony. Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Erpingham, Sir Thomas, officer in King's 

army. Henry V. 

Escalus, (es'ka-lus) Prince of Verona. Romeo and Juliet. 

Escalus, ancient lord. Measure for Measure. 

Escanes, (es'ka-nez) lord of Tyre. Pericles. 

Euphronius, (u-fro'ni-us) ambassador from Antony and 

Antony to Ca:sar. Cleopatra. 

Evans, (ev'anz) Hugh, a Welsh priest. Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 

Exeter, (eks'e-ter) Duke of, uncle to King. Henry V. 

Exeter, Duke of, on Henry's side. 3 Henry VI. 



FABIAN, (fa'bi-an) servant to Olivia. Twelfth Night 

f 1, 2 Henry IV 

Falstaff (fal'siaf), Sir John. ] Merry Wives of 



Windsor. 



332 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Fang (fang), sheriff's officer. 
Fastolfe (fas'tolf), Sir John. 
Faulconbridge (fa'kn-brij), Robert. 
Faulconbridge, PhiHp, bastard son to King 

Richard I. 
Faulconbridge, Lady, mother to Robert 

and Phihp. 
Feeble (fe'bl), a recruit. 
Fenton (fen'ton), a courtier. 

Ferdinand, (fer'di-nand) King of Navarre. 
Ferdinand, son of King of Naples. 
Feste, (fes'te) Olivia's clown. 
Fitz-Peter, Geffrey, Earl of Essex. 
Fitzwater, Lord. 

Flaminius, (fia-min'i-us) servant to Timon, 
Flavins, (fia'vi-us) steward to Timon. 
Flavins, Tribune. 
Fleance, (fle'ans) son to Banquo. 
Florizel, (flor'i-zel) son to Polixenes. 
Fluellen, (flo-el'en) officer in King's army. 
Flute, (flot) the bellows-mender. 

Ford, (ford) Master Francis. 
Ford, Mistress, his wife. 
Fortinbras, (for'tin-bras) Prince of Nor- 
way. 
France, (frans) King of, 

France, King of, 

France, Princess of, 

Francisca, (fran-sis'ka) a nun. 

Francisco, (fran-sis'ko) soldier on guard. 

Francisco, Lord. 

Frederick, (fred'er-ik) usurper, brother to 

Duke. 
Friar John, (jon). 
Friar Lawrence, (la'rens). 
Froth, (froth) a foolish gentleman. 



2 Henry IV. 

1 Henry VI. 
King John. 

King John. 

King John. 

2 Henry IV. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 
Love's Labour's Lost. 
The Tempest. 
Twelfth Night. 
King John. 
Richard II. 
Timon -of Athens. 
Timon of Athens. 
Julius Caesar. 
Macbeth. 
Winter's Tale. 
Henry V. 
Midsummer-Night 's 

Dream. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 

Hamlet. 

All's Well That 

Ends Well. 
King Lear. 

Love's Labour's Lost. 
Measure for Measure, 
Hamlet. 
The Tempest. 

As You Like it. 
Romeo and Juliet. 
Romeo and Juliet. 
Measure for Measure. 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 



333 



GADSHILL, (gadz'hil). 
Gallus, (gal'iis) friend to Csesar. 

Gardiner, (gard'ner)[Bishop of Winchester. 

Gargrave, Sir Thomas. 

Garter, King-at-arms. 

George, (jorj) follower of Jack Cade. 

George, afterward Duke of Clarence 

Gertrude, (ger'trod) Queen of Denmark, 
mother of Hamlet. 

Ghost of Hamlet's father. 

Glansdale, Sir Wm. 

Glendower, (glen'dor) Owen. 

Gloster, (glos'ter) Earl of, 

Gloster, Duchess of, 

Gloster, Duke of, brother to King. 

Gloster, Duke of, uncle to King and Pro- 
tector. 

Gobbo, (gob'bo) Launcelot, servant to 
Shylock. 

Gobbo, Old, father to Launcelot. 

Goneril, (gon'er-il) daughter to Lear. 

Gonzalo, (gon'za'lo) an honest old counsel- 
lor of Naples. 

Gower, (gou'er) of King's party. 

Gower, officer in King's army. 

Gower, as chorus. 

Grand-pre, (gron-pra') a French Lord. 

Gratiano, (gra-shi-a'no) brother to Bra- 
bantio. 

Gratiano, friend to Antonio and Bassanio. 

Grave-diggers. 

Green, (gren) servant to King Richard. 

Gregory, (greg'o-ri) servant to Capulet. 

Greniio, (grc'mi-6) suitor to Bianca. 

Grey, (gra) Sir Thomas, against the Kmg. 

Grey, Lady, wife of Edward IV. 

Grey, Lord, son to Lady Grey. 



1 Henry IV. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Henry VIII. 

1 Henry VI. 
Henry VIII. 

2 Henry VI. 

2, 3 Henry VI. 
Richard III. 

Hamlet. 
Hamlet. 
1 Henry VI. 

1 Henry IV. 
King Lear. 
Richard II. 
Henry V. 

1, 2 Henry VI. 

Merchant of Venice. 
Merchant of Venice. 
King Lear. 

The Tempest. 

2 Henry IV. 
Heniy V. 
Pericles. 
Henry V. 

Othello. 

Merchant of Venice. 

Hamlet. 

Richard II. 

Romeo and Juliet. 

Taming of the Shrew. 

Henry V. 

3 Henry VI. 
Richard III. 



334 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Griffith, (grif'ith) usher to Queen Kather- 

ine. 
Grumio, (gro'mi-o) servant to Petruchio. 
Guiderius, (gwi-de'ri-us) son to Cymbehne, 

supposed son to Balarius. 
Guildenstern, (gil'den-stern) (W) courtier. 
Guilford, (gil'ford) Sir Henry. 
Gurney, (ger'ni) JameS; servant to Lady 

Faulconbridge. 



Henry VIII. 
Taming of the Shrew. 

Cymbehne. 
Hamlet. 
Henry VIII 

King John. 



HAMLET, (ham'let) son to former King, 

nephew to Claudius. 
Harcourt, (har'kort) of King's party. 
Harfleur, (ar-fler') Governor of, 

Hastings, (hast'ingz) Lord, 

Hecate, (hek'a-te) Queen of Witches. 
Hector, (hek'tor) son to Priam. 
Helen, (hel'en) wife to Menelaus. 
Helen, woman to Imogen. 
Helena, (here-na) protege of Countess. 

Helena, an Athenian lady in love with De- 
metrius. 

Helenus, (hel'e-nus) son to Priam. 

Hehcanus, (hel-i-ka'nus) lord of Tyre. 

Henry, (hen'ri) Prince, son of John of 
Gaunt, afterward King Henry IV. 

Henry IV, King of England. 

Henry, Prince of Wales (Hal in Henry V). 

Henry V, King of England. 

Henry VI, King of England. 

Henry. Earl of Richmond, a youth. 

Henry (Bolinbroke) afterward King Heniy 
IV. 

Henry, Earl of Richmond, (Henry VII). 

Henry VIII, King of England. 



Hamlet. 

2 Henry IV. 

Henry V. 

2 Henry IV. 

3 Henry VI. 
Richard III. 
Macbeth. 

Troilus and Cressida. 
Troilus and Cressida. 
Cymbeline. 
All's Well That 

Ends Well. 
Midsummer-Night 's 

Dream, 
Troilus and Cressida. 
Pericles. 

King John. 

1, 2 Henry IV. 

1, 2 Henry IV. 

Henry V. 

1, 2, 3 Henry VI. 

3 Henry VI. 

Richard II. 
Richard III. 
Henry VIII. 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 



335 



Herbert, (her'bert) Sir Walter. 
Hermia, (her'mi-d) daughter to Egeus. 

Hermiene, (her-mi'o-ne) Queen to Leontes. 
Hero, (he'ro) daughter to Leonato. 

Hippolyta, (hi-pori-ta) Queen of the Ama- 
zons. 

Holofernes, (hol-o-fer'nez) a schoolmaster. 

Horatio, (ho-ra'shio) friend to Hamlet. 

Horner, (hor'ner) Thomas, an armourer. 

Hortensio, (hor-ten'shi-o) suitor to Bianca. 

Hortensius, (hor-ten'shi-us) servant to Ti- 
mon's creditors. 

Host of the Garter Inn. 

Hotspur, Henry Percy. 
Hubert de Burgh, (hti'bert de berj) cham- 
berlain to King. 
Hume, (hum) John, a priest. 
Humphrey, (hum'fri) Prince of Gloster. 
Duke of Gloster. 



Richard III. 

Midsummer-Night's 
Dream. 

Winter's Tale. 

Much Ado About 

Nothing. 

Midsummer-N ight 's 
Dream. 

Love's Labour's Lost. 

Hamlet . 

2 Henry VI. 

Taming of the Shrew. 

Timon of Athens. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 

1 Henry IV. 

King John. 

2 Henry VI 
2 Henry IV. 
Henry V. 

1, 2 Henry VI. 



lACHIMO, i-ak'i-mo) Italian, a villain; 

friend to Philario. 
lago, (i-a'go) Ancient (ensign) to Othello. 
Iden, (I'den) Alexander; slays Jack Cade. 
Imogen, (im'o-jen) daughtei- to Cymbeline. 
Iras, (I'ras) attendant on Cleopatra. 

Iris, (I'ris) a spirit. 

Isabel, Queen of France. 

Isabella, (iz-a-bel'a) sister to Claudio. 



Cymbeline. 

Othello. 

2 Henry VI. 

Cymbeline. 

Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
The Tempest. 
Henry V. 
Measure for Measure. 



JAMY, officer in King's army. 
Jaquenetta, (jak-e-nct'//) a country wench. 
Jaques, (jaks or jaks) Lord, attendant on 
Duke. 



Henry V. 

Love's Labour's Lost. 

As You Like It. 



336 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Jaques, son to'Sir Rowland de Bois. 
Jessica, (jes'i-ka) daughter to Shylock. 
Joan La'Pucelle, (jo-an' la pii-sel') or Joan 

of Arc. 
John, (jon) King of England. 
John of Gaunt, uncle to King. 
John of Lancaster, son to King Henry IV. 
John, follower of Jack Cade. 
Jourdain, (zhor-doh') Margaret, a witch. 
Julia, (jo'lya) a lady of Verona. 

Juhet, (jo-li-ef) daughter to Capulet. 
Juliet, beloved by Claudio. 
Juno, (30'no) a spirit. 



As You Like It. 
Merchant of Venice. 

1 Henry VI. 
King John. 
Richard II. 

1, 2 Henry IV. 

2 Henry VI. 
2 Henry VI. 
Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
Romeo and Juliet. 
Measure for Measure. 
The Tempest. 



KATHERINE or Katharina, (kath'e-rin) 

the shrew. 
Katherine, attendant on the^princess. 
Katherine, daughter to French King. 
Katherine, Queen, 
Kent, (kent) Earl of. 



Taming of the Shrew, 
Love's Labour's Lost. 
Henry V. 
Henry VIII. 
King Lear. 



LAERTES, (la-er'tez) son to Polonius, 

brother to Ophelia. 
Lafeu, (la-feO a sagacious old lord. 

Lartius, (lar'shi-us) (W) Titus, general 

against the Volscians. 
Launce, (lans) servant to Proteus. 

Lavinia, (la-vin'i-a) daughter to Titus. 
Lear, (ler) King of Britain. 
Le Beau, (le-bo) attendant on Frederick. 
Lena, Popil'ius, senator. 
Lenox, (len'oks) a nobleman of Scotland. 
Leonardo, (le^^-o-nar'do) (S) servant to 
Bassanio. 



Hamlet. 

All's Well That 

Ends Well. 

Coriolanus. 

Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
Titus Andronicus. 
King Lear. 
As You Like It. 
Julius Caesar. 
Macbeth. 

Merchant of Venice. 



INDEX TO CHAKACTERS 



337 



Leonato, (le-o-na'to) Governor to Mes- 
sina. 
Leonine, (le'o-nin) servant to Dionyza. 
Leontes, (le-on'tez) King of Sicily. 



Lepidus, (lep'i-dus) M. ^milius, triumvir ^ 

Lewis, (lu'is) the Dauphin of France. 

Lewis, Dauphin of France. 

Lewis XI, King of France. 

Ligarius, (h-ga'ri-us) a conspirator. 

Lincohi, Bishop of, 

Lodovico, (lo-do-ve'ko) kinsman to Bra- 
bant io. 

London, (hm'don) Mayor of, 

Longaville, (long'ga-vil) attendant on King 
of Navarre. 

Longsword, (long'sord) Wm., Earl of 
Salisbury. 

Lord, (lord) a. 

Lord Chamberlain, (cham'ber-lan). 

Lord Chancellor, (chan'sel-or). 

Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench. 

Lorenzo, (lo-ren'zo) Jessica's lover. 

Lovel, (luv'el) Lord. 

Lovell, (luv'el) Sir Thomas. 

Luce, (los) servant to Luciana. 

Lucentio, (lo-sen'shio) son to Vincentio. 

Lucetta, (lo-set'ta) waiting-maid to Julia. 

Luciana, (lo-si-a'nd) sister to Adriana. 
Lucilius, (lu-sil'i-us) friend to Brutus and 

Cassius. 
Lucilius, servant to Timon. 
Lucio, (lu'shio) a fantastic and profligate. 
Lucius, (lu'shius) servant to Brutus. 
Lucius, Caius, general of Roman forces. 
Lucius, son to Titus Andronicus. 
Lucius, a boy, son to Lucius. 



Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Pericles. 
Winter's Tale. 
Julius Caesar. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Henry V. 
King John. 
3 Henry VI. 
Julius Caesar. 
Henry VIII. 

Othello. 

1 Henry VI. 

Love's Labour's Lost. 

King John. 
Taming of the Shrew. 
Henry VIII. 
Henry VIII. 

2 Henry IV. 
Merchant of Venice. 
Richard III. 
Henry VIII 
Comedy of Errors. 
Taming of the Shrew. 
Two Gentlemen of 

Verona 
Comedy of Errors. 

Julius Ca?sar. 
Timon of Athens. 
Measure for Measure. 
Julius Caesar. 
Cymbeline. 
Titus Andronicus. 
Titus Andronicus. 



338 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



lords, flatterers of Timon of Athens. 
Timon 



Lucius, servant to Timon 's creditors. Timon of Athens. 

Lucius, 

LucuUus, (lu-kul'us) 

Lucy, (lu'si) Sir Wm. 1 Henry VI. 

Lychorida, nurse to Marina. Pericles. 

Lysander, (li-san'der) in love with Hermia. Midsummer-Night's 

Dream. 
Lysimachus, (ll-sim'a-kus) governor o f 

Mitylene. Pericles. 



MACBETH, (mak-bethO general in King 

Duncan's army. 
Macbeth, Lady, wife of Macbeth. 
Macduff, (mak-duf) nobleman of Scotland. 
Macduff, Lady, wife of Macduff. 
Macmorris, officer in King's army. 
Malcolm, (mal kom' or ma'kom) son of 

Duncan. 
Malvolio, (mal-vo'lio) steward to Olivia. 
Mamilius, (ma-mil'i-us) son to Leontes. 
Marcellus, (mar-sel'us) officer. 
Marcius, (mar'shi-us) (W) son to Corio- 

lanus. 
Mardian, (mar'di-an) attendant on Cleo- 
patra. 
Mareshall, William, Earl of Pembroke. 
Margarelon, (mar-gar'e-lon) (W) bastard 

son of Priam. 
Margaret (mar'ga-ret) of Anjou, daughter 

of Reignier, afterward wife to Henry 

VI. 
Margaret, of Anjou, widow of Henry VI. 
Margaret, attendant on Hero. 

Maria, (ma-ri'a) attendant on Princess. 

Maria, Olivia's maid. 

Mariana, (ma-ri-a'na) betrothed to Angelo. 



Macbeth. 
Macbeth. 
Macbeth. 
Macbeth. 
Henry V. 

Macbeth. 
Twelfth Night. 
Winter's Tale. 
Hamlet. 

Coriolanus. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
King John. 

Troilus and Cressida. 



1, 2, 3 Henry VI. 
Richard III. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Love's Labour's Lost. 
Twelfth Night. 
Measure for Measure* 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 



339 



Mariana, friend to the Widow. 

Marina, (ma-ri'na) daughter to Pericles 

and Thaisa. 
Martext, (mar'tekst) Sir OHver, a vicar. 
Marshal, Lord. 

Martins, (mar'shi-us) son to Titus Andro- 

nicus. 
MaruUus, (ma-rurus) (W) a tribune. 
Master-Gunner of Orleans and his son. 
Mecsenas, friend to Caesar. 

Melun, (me-lun') a French lord. 

Men as, (me'nas) (W) a friend to Pompey. 

Menecratus, (me-nek'ra-tus) (\V) friend to 
Pompey. 

Menelaus, (men-a-la'us) brother to Aga- 
memnon. 

Menenius, (me-ne'ni-us) Agrippa, friend to 
Coriolanus. 

Menteith, (men-teth') nobleman of Scot- 
land. 

Mercade, attendant on Princess of France. 

Mercutio, (mer-ku'shio) friend to Romeo. 

Messala, (me-sa'la) friend to Brutus and 
Cassius. 

Michael, (mi'kel or mi'ka-el) Sir. 

Michael, follower of Jack Cade. 

Mirando, (mi-ran'd«) daughter to Prospero. 

Montague, (mon'ta-gii) Lord. 

Montague, Lady. 

Montague, Marquis of, 

Montano, Othello's predecessor in Cypress. 

Montgomery, (mont-gum'e-ri) Sir John. 

Montjoy, a French Herald. 

Mopsa, (mop'sa) a shepherdess. 

Morocco, (mo-rok'o) Prince of, 

Mortimer, (mor'ti-mer) Edmund, Earl of / 
Maich. \ 



All's Well That 

Ends Well. 

Pericles. 

As You Like It. 

Richard II. 

Titus Andronicus. 
Julius Caesar. 
1 Henry VI. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
King John. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 

Troilus and Cressida. 

Coriolanus. 

Macbeth. 

Love's Labour's Lost. 

Romeo and Juliet. 

Julius Ca?sar. 

1 Henrv IV. 

2 Henry VI. 
The Tempest . 
Romeo and Juliet. 
Romeo and Juhet. 

3 Henry VI. 
Othello. 

3 Heniy VI. 
Henry V. 
Winter's Tale. 
Merchant of Venice. 
1 Henry IV. 
1 Henry VI. 



340 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Mortimer, Lady, wife to Mortimer. 

Mortimer, Sir John. 

Mortimer, Sir Hugh. 

Morton, John, Bishop of Ely. 

Morton, domestic. 

Moth, (moth) page to Armado. 

Moth, a fairy. 

Mouldy, (mol'di) a recruit. 
Mowbray, (mo'bra) lord, enemy to King. 
Mowbray, Thomas, Duke of Norfolk. 
Mustard-Seed, (mus't«rd-sed) fairy. 

Mutius, (mu'shi-us) (W) son to Titus. 



1 Henry IV. 
3 Henry VI. 
3 Henry VI. 
Richard III. 

2 Henry IV. 
Love's Labour's Lost. 
Midsummer-Night 's 

Dream. 
2 Henry IV 
2 Henry IV. 
Richard II. 
Midsummer-Night's 

Dream. 
Titus Andronicus. 



NATHANIEL, (na-than'yel) Sir, a curate. 
Nerissa, (ne-ris'sa) maid to Portia. 
Nestor, (nes'tor) Grecian commander. 

Norfolk, (nor'fok) Duke of, | 

Norfolk, Duke of, 

Northumberland, (nor-thum'ber-land) 

Earl of, 
Northumberland, Earl of, 
Northumberland, Earl of, enemy of King. 
Northumberland, Lady, 



Nym, (nim) 
Nymphs. 



follower of Falstaff. 



soldier in the army. 



Love's Labour's Lost, 
Merchant of Venice. 
Troilus and Cressida. 
3 Henry VI. 
Richard III. 
Henry VIII. 

Richard II. 
3 Henry VI. 
2 Henry IV. 
2 Henry IV. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 
Henry V. 
The Tempest. 



OBERON, (o'be-ron) King of the fairies. Midsummer-Night's 

Dream. 
Octavia, (ok-ta'vi-a) sister to Csesar, wife Antony and 

to Antony. Cleopatra. 

Oliver, (ol'i-ver) son to Sir Rowland de 

Bois. As You Like It. 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 



341 



Olivia, (6-liv'i-a) a rich countess. 
Ophelia, (o-fe'li//) daughter to Polonius. 
Orlando, (6r-lan'do) son to Sir Rowland 

de Bois. 
Orleans, (or-la-on') (Eng. 6r-le-anz) Duke of, 
Orleans, Bastard of, 
Orsino, (or-se'no) Duke of Illyria. 
Osric, (oz'rik) a courtier. 
Oswald, (oz'wald) steward to Goneril. 
Othello, (o-thero) a noble Moor. 
Overdun, (o'ver-dun) Mistress. 

Oxford, (oks'ford) Earl of, < 



Twelfth Night. 
Hamlet. 

As You Like It. 

Henry V. 

1 Henry VI. 

Twelfth Night 

Hamlet. 

King Lear. 

Othello. 

Measure for Measure. 

3 Henry VI . 

Richard III. 



PAGE, (paj) Mr. George. "1 

Page, Mrs., wife to George. I 

Page, William, their son. [ 

Page, Anne, their daughter. J 
Pandarus, (pan'da-rus) uncle to Cressida. 
Pandulph, (pan'dulf) Cardinal. 
Panthino, servant to Antonio. 

Paris, (par'is) son to Priam. 

Paris, kinsman to Escalus. 

ParoUes, (pa-rol'es) follower of Bertram. 

Patience, (pa'shens) woman to Queen 
Katherine. 

Patroclus, (pa-tro'klus) Grecian comman- 
der. 

Paulina, (pa-li'na) (W) wife to Antigo- 
nous. 

Pease-Blossom, (pez'blos"om) fairy. 

Pedant, personates Vincentio. 
Pembroke, (pem'briik) Earl of, 
Percy, (per'si) Henry, son to Northumber- 
land. (Hotspur). 
Percy, Thomas, Earl of Worcester. 



Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 

Troilus and Cressida. 

King John. 

Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
Troilus and Cressida. 
Romeo and Juliet. 
All's Well That 

Ends Well. 

Henry VIII. 

Troilus and Cressida. 

Winter's Tale. 
Midsummer-Night's 

Dream. 
Taming of the Shrew. 
3 Henry VI. 

Richard II. 
1 Henry IV. 



342 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Percy, Henry, Earl of Northumberland. 

Percy, Henry, (Hotspur) his son. 

Percy, Lady, wife to Hotspur. 

Perdita, (per'di-ta) daughter to Leontes. 

Pericles, (per'i-klez) Prince of Tyre. 

Peter, (pe'ter)^of Pomfret, a prophet. 

Peter, an officer. 

Peter, a servant. 

Peter, a friar. 

Peto, (pe'to) attendant on Prince Henry. 

Petruchio, (pe-tro'chi-o or ki-6) suitor to 

Katharina. 
Phebe, (fe'be) a shepherdess. 
Philario, (fi-la'ri-o) friend to Posthumas. 
Philemon, (fi-le'mon) servant tp Cerimon. 
Philip, (firip) King of France. 
Philip, the bastard. 
Philo, (fl'lo) Friend to Antony. 

Philostrate, (fH'os-trat) master of revels. 

Philotus, (fi-lo'tus) (W) servant to Ti- 

mon's creditors. 
Phrynia, mistress to Alcibiades. 
Pierce, (pers or pers) Sir, of Exton. 
Pinch, (pinch) a schoolmaster. 
Pindarus, (pin'da-rus) (W) servant to 

Cassius. 
Pisanio, (pe-sa'ne-o) servant to Posthu- 

mus. 

Pistol, (pis'tol) follower of Falstaff. 



Plantagenet, (plan-taj'e-net) Richard, Duke 

of York. 
Plantagenet, Richard, son of Duke of York. 
Poins, (poinz) attendant on Prince Henry. 
Polixenes, (po-liks'e-nez) King of Bohemia. 



1 Henry IV. 

1 Henry IV. 

1, 2 Henry IV. 
Winter's Tale. 
Pericles. 
King John. 
Romeo and Juliet. 

2 Henry VI. 
Measure for Measure. 
1, 2 Henry IV. 

Taming of the Shrew. 

As You Like It. 

Cymbeline. 

Pericles. 

King John 

King John. 

Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Midsummer-Night's 
Dream. 

Timon of Athens. 
Timon of Athens. 
Richard II. 
Comedy of Errors. 

Julius Caesar. 

Cymbeline. 
2 Henry IV. 
Henry V. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 

1, 2, 3 Henry VI. 
2 Henry VI. 
1, 2 Henry IV. 
Winter's Tale. 



INDEX TO CHARACTI-.KS 



.S4' 



Polonius, (po-l6'ni-us) Lord Chamberlain. 
Pompeius, (pom-pe'yus) Sextus. 

Porter. 

Portia, (por'shio) wife to Brutus. 
Portia, a rich heiress, marries Bassanio. 
Posthumus, (pos'tii-mus) Leonatus. 
Priam, (pri'am) King of Troy. 
Proculeius, (proc^^u-le'yus) (W) friend to 

Caesar. 
Prospero, (pros'pe-ro) rightful Duke of 

Milan. 
Proteus, (pro'tus or pro'te-us). 

Provost, (pro-vo') (W) the. 
Publius, (pub'li-us) a senator. 
Publius, son to Marcus the tribune. 
Puck, (puk) a playful fairy. 



Hamlet. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Macbeth. 
Julius Caesar. 
Merchant of Venice. 
Cymbeline. 
Troilus and Cressida. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 

TheTempest. 
Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
Measure for Measure. 
Julius Caesar. 
Titus Andronicus. 
Midsummer-Night 's 

Dream. 



QUEEN, to King Richard II. 
Queen, wife to Cymbeline. 
Quickly, (kwikTi) Mistress, 

inn-keeper in East-cheap. 

hostess, Pistol's wife. 

servant to Dr. Caius. 

Quince, (kwins) the carpenter. 

Quintus, (kwin'tus) son to Titus Androni- 
cus. 



Richard II. 
Cymbeline. 

1,2 Henry IV. 
Henry V. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 
Midsummer-Night's 
Dream, 

Titus Andronicus. 



RAMBURES, a French lord. 

Ratcliffe, Sir Richard. 

Reapers. 

Regan, (re'gan) daughter to Lear. 

Reignier, (ran'ye-a) (W) Duke of Anjou. 



Henry V. 
Richard III. 
TheTempest. 
King Lear. 
1 Henry VI. 



344 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Reynaldo, (ra-naFdo) servant to Polonius. 
Richard, (rich'ard) Duke of York. 
Richard II, King of England. 
Richard, 

son to Richard Plantagenet. 

Duke of Gloster (Richard III). 
Richmond, (rich'mond) Henry, Earl of, 

Rivers, Lord, brother to Lady Grey. 
Robin, (rob'in) page to Falstaff. 

Roderigo, (rod-e-re'go) Venetian gentle- 
man. 

Rogero, (ro-je'ro) Sicilian gentleman. 

Romeo, (ro'me-o) son to Montague. 

Rosalind, (roz'a-lind) daughter to banished 
Duke. 

Rosaline, (roz'a-lin) attendant. 

Rosencrantz, (ro'zen-krantz) (W) courtier. 

Rosse, (ros) nobleman of Scotland. 

Ross, Lord. 

Rotherham, (roth'er-om) Thomas, Arch- 
bishop of York. 

Rousillon, (ro-se-yon^) countess of, mother 
to Bertram. 

Rugby, (rug'bi) servant to Dr. Caius. 



Hamlet. 
Richard III. 
Richard II. 

2, 3 Henry IV. 
Richard III. 
3 Henry VI. 
3 Henry VI. 
Richard III. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 

Othello. 
Winter's Tale. 
Romeo and Juliet. 

As You Like It. 

Love's Labour's Lost. 

Hamlet. 

Macbeth. 

Richard II. 

Richard III. 
All's AVell That 

Ends Well. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 



SALANIO, (sa-la'ni-6) friend to Antonio 

and Bassanio. 
Salarino, (sa-la-re'no) friend to Antonio 

and Bassanio. 
Salerio, (sa-le'ri-6) messenger from Venice. 
Salisbury, (salz'bu-ri) Earl of, 

Salisbury, Earl of, 

Sampson, (samp'son) servant to Capulet. 
Sands, (sandz) (S) Lord. 



Merchant of Venice. 

Merchant of Venice. 
Merchant of Venice. 
Richard II. 
Henry V. 
1, 2 Henry VI. 
Romeo and Juliet. 
Henry VIII. 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 345 

Saturninus, (sat'^ur-ni'nvis) (W) son to 

Emperor of Rome. Titus Andronicus. 

Say, (sa) Lord. 2 Henry VI. 

Scales, Lord, Governor of Tower. 2 Henry VI. 

Scarus, friend to Antony. Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Scroop, (skrop) Richard, Archbishop of 

York. 1, 2 Henry IV. 

Scroop, Sir Steven. Richard II. 

Scroop, Lord. Henry V. 

Sebastian, (se-bas'tian) brother to Viola. Twelfth Night. 

Sebastian, brother to King of Naples. The Tempest. 

Secretaries to Wolsey. Henry VIII. 

Selecus, (se-lu'kus) attendant on Cleopa- Antony and 

tra. Cleopatra. 

Semproniiis, (sem-pro'ni-us) Lord, flatterer 

of Timon. Timon of Athens. 
Servilius, (ser-viri-us) (W) servant to 

Timon. Timon of Athens. 

Seyton, officer attending Macbeth. Macbeth. 

Shadow, (shad'o) (W) a recruit. 2 Henry IV. 

/ 2 Henry IV. 

Shallow, (shal'o) Robert, country justice. \ ^erry Wives of 

Windsor. 
Shepherd, (shep'erd) (W^) reputed father 

to Perdita. Winter's Tale. 

Shepherd, father to Joan La Pucelle. 1 Henry VI. 

Shylock, (shi'lok) a Jew. Merchant of Venice. 

Silence, (si'lens) a country justice. 2 Henry IV. 

Silius, (sil'i-us) (W) officer in Ventidius' Antony and 

army. Cleopatra. 

Silvia, (sil'vi-o) Duke's daughter. Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
SilVius, (silVi-us) a shepherd. As You Like It. 

Simonides, (si-mon'i-dez) King of Pentap- 

olis. Pericles. 

Simpcox, (sim'koks) an imposter. 2 Henry VI. 

Simple, (sim'pl) Peter, servant to Slender. Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 



346 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



Siward, (seVdrd) Earl of Northumberland. 

Si ward, his son. 

Slender, (slen'der) cousin to Shallow. 

Sly, (sll) Christopher, a drunker tinker. 
Smith, (smith) the weaver, follower of 

Jack Cade. 
Snare, (snar) sheriff's officer. 
Snout, (snout) the tinker. 

Snug, (snug) the joiner. 

Solinus, (s6-ll'nus) Duke of Ephesus. 
Somerset, (sum'er-set) Duke of, of King's 

party. 
Somerville, (summer- vil) Sir John. 
Southwell, (south'wel) John, priest. 
Speed, (sped) servant. 

Stafford, (staf'ord) Sir Humphrey. 

Stafford, William, his brother. 

Stafford, Lord, of Duke of York's army. 

Stanley, (stan'li) Sir William. 

Stanley, Sir John. 

Stanley, Lord. 

Starveling, (starveling) the tailor. 

Stephano, (stef'a-no) servant to Portia. 
Stephano, a drunker butler. 
Strato, (stra'to) servant to Brutus. 
Suffolk, (suf'ok) Earl of 
Suffold, Duke of, 
Surrey, (sur'i) Earl of, 
Surrey, Duke of, 

Surrey, Earl of, son of Duke of Norfolk. 
Surveyor, (sur-va'or) to Duke of Bucking- 
ham. 



Macbeth. 
Macbeth. 
Merry Wives of 

Windsor. 
Taming of the Shrew. 

2 Henry VL 

2 Henry IV. 
Midsummer Night's 

Dream. 
Midsummer-Night 's 

Dream. 
Comedy of Errors. ~ 

2, 3 Henry VL 

3 Henry VI. 
2 Henry VL 
Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
2 Henry VI. 

2 Henry VI. 

3 Henry VL 
3 Henry VI. 
2 Henry VI. 
Richard III. 

Midsummer-Night's 

Dream. 
Merchant of Venice. 
The Tempest. 
Julius Csesar. 
1, 2 Henry VL 
Henry VIII. 
Henry VIIL 
Richard 11. 
Richard III. 

Henry VIIL 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 



347 



TALBOT, (tal'bot) Lord. 

Talbot, John, his son. 

Tamora, (tam'6-ra) (W) Queen of Goths. 

Taurus, (ta'rus) lieutenant - general to 

Ca?sar. 
Tearsheet, (tar'shet) Doll. 
Thaisa, (tha'is-sa) daughter to Simonides. 
Thaliard, a lord of Antioch. 
Thersites, (ther-sl'tez) a scurrilous Grecian. 
Theseus, (the'sus or the'se-us) Duke of 

Athens. 
Thomas, (tom'as) a friar. 
Thomas, Duke of Clarence. 
Thurio,(thu'ri-o) (W) rival to Valentine. 

Thyreus, friend to Caesar. 

Timandra, (ti-man'dra) (W) mistress to 

Alcibiades. 
Timon, (ti'mon) a noble Athenian. 
Titania, (ti-ta'ni-o) Queen of the fairies. 

Titinius, (ti-tin'i-us) (W) friend to Bru- 
tus and Cassius. 

Titus, (tl'tus) servant to Timon's credi- 
tors. 

Touchstone, (tuch'ston) a clown. 

Tranio, (tra'ni-o) servant to Lucentio. 

Travers, (tra'vers) domestic. 

Trebonius, (tre-bo'ni-us) (AV) a conspira- 
tor. 

Tressel, attendant of Lady Anne. 

Trinculo, (trin'ku-lo) a jester. 

Troilus, (tro'i-lus) son to Priam. 

Tubal, (tu'bfll) a Jew, friend to Shylock. 

Tybalt, (tib'alt) nephew to Lady Capulct. 

Tyrrel, (tir'el) (S) Sir James. 



1 Henry VI. 

1 Henry VI. 
Titus Andronicus. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 

2 Henry IV. 
Pericles. 
Pericles. 

Troilus and Cressida. 
Midsummer-Night 's 

Dream. 
Measure for Measure. 
2 Henry IV. 
Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
Antony and 

Cleapatra. 

Timon of Athens. 
Timon of Athens. 
Midsummer-Night's 
Dream. 

Julius Cipsar. 

Timon of Athens. 
As You Like It. 
Taming of the Shrew. 
2 Henry IV. 

Julius Cspsar. 
Richard III. 
The Tempest. 
Troilus and Cressida. 
Merchant of Venice. 
Ivonieo and Juliet. 
Richard III. 



348 



STUDIES IN SHAKESPEAREAN DRAMA 



ULYSSES, (u-lis'ez) Grecian commander. 
Ursula, (er'su-la) attendant on Hero. 

Urswick, Christopher a priest. 



Troilus and Cressida. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing. 
Richard III. 



VALENTINE, (val'en-tin) attendant to 

the Duke. 
Valentine, a gentleman of Verona. 

Valeria, (va-le'ri-a) friend to Virgilia. 
Varrius, (var'i-us) (S) friend to Pompey. 

Varrius, servant to Duke. 

Varro, (var'o) servant to Brutus. 

Vaughn, (van or va'an) Sir Thomas. 

Vaux, (vaks). 

Vaux, Sir Nicholas. 

Velutus, Sicinius, tribune of people. 

Ventidius, (ven-tid'i-us) (W) friend to 

Antony. 
Ventidius, false friend to Timon. 
Verges, (ver'ges) a foolish officer. 

Vernon, (ver'non) Sir Richard. 
Vernon, White Rose, York faction. 
Vincentio, (vin-sen'shio) old gentleman of 

Pisa. 
Vincentio, Duke of Vienna. 
Viola, (vl^o-la) in love with the Duke. 
Violenta, friend to the Widow. 

VirgiHa, (ver-jiri-a) wife to Coriolanus. 

Voltimand, (vol'ti-mand) (W) courtier, 
ambassador to Norway. 

Volumnia, (v6-lum'ni-a) mother to Corio- 
lanus. 

Volumnius, (vo-lum'ni-us) (W) friend to 
Brutus and Cassius. 



Twelfth Night. 
Two Gentlemen of 

Verona. 
Coriolanus. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Measure for Measure. 
Julius Caesar. 
Richard III. 
2 Henry VI. 
Henry VIII. 
Coriolanus. 
Antony and 

Cleopatra. 
Timon of Athens. 
Much Ado About 

Nothing'. 
1 Henry IV. 
1 Henry VI. 

Taming of the Shrew 
Measure for Measure. 
Twelfth Night. 
All's Well That 

Ends Well. 
Coriolanus. 

Hamlet. 

Coriolanus. 

Julius Caesar. 



INDEX TO CHARACTERS 



349 



WART, a recruit. 

Warwick, (wor'ik) Earl of, 

Westminster, (west'min-ster) Abbot of, 

Westmorland, (west'mor-land) Earl of, 

Westmorland, Earl of, 

Westmorland, Earl of, 

^\'hitmore, (hwit'mor) (W) Walter. 

Widow, (wid'o) (W). 

^^ idow of Florence. 

AVilliam. (wil'yam) a country fellow. 

Williams, a soldier in the King's army. 

WilloughbyJ (wil'o-bi) Lord. 

Witches or Weird Sisters. 

Wolsey, (wul'zi) Cardinal. 

Woodville, (wiid'vil) lieutenant of Tower. 



2 Henry IV. 

2 Henry IV. 
Heniy V. 
1,2,3 Henry VI. 
Richard II. 

1,2 Henry IV. 
Henry V. 

3 Henry VI. 
2 Henry VI. 
Taming of the Shrew. 
All's Well That 

Ends Well. 
As You Like It. 
Henry V. 
Richard II. 
Macbeth. 
Henry VIII. 
1 Henry VI. 



YORK, (york) Duke of, cousin to King. Henry V. 
York, Duchess of, Richard II. 

York, Duchess of, mother of Edward IV. Richard III. 



GENERAL INDEX 



ACTION, basis of Hamlet's, 

264; of King's, 265. 
Actors at Stratford, 54. 
Acts of the Drama, 122. 
Adam, 61. 
Alleyn, 62. 
All's Well That End's Well, 

95- 

Andersen, Hans Christian, 249. 

Angels, 80, 211, 212. 

Animal life, 100. 

Antonio, 147, 149, 154, 155, 156. 

Antony curses Cleopatra and 
himself, 89. 

Antony and Cleopatra, 188. 

Arden, Mary, 52. 

Arden. Forest of, 77, 80. 

Aristides, 30. 

Armado, 75. 

Arragon. Prince of, 155. 

Arraignment of Paris, 44. 

Arthur's bosom, 76. 

As Von Like It, 84, 85. 97, 131, 
138. 

Aubrey, John, 46, 59, 60. 

Audiences for which Shake- 
speare wrote, 88. 

Augustus, reign of, 191. 

B 

BANQUO. 214, 219, 221, 222. 
Barnard, John, 59. 
Barnard. Lady. 59, 6^. 
Barnfield, Richard, 65. 



Barrett, Lawrence, 150. 

Basis of the Drama, of Action 

Macbeth, 220; Hamlet, 264 

of Hamlet's action. 264 

King's, 265. 
Bassanio. 147, 148, 149, 154, 

156. 
Bear, Sackerson, 41, 
Bear garden. 41, 62. 
Beatrice and Benedick, 90. 
Beeston, William, 46. 
Betterton, 47. 

Bellario of Padua. 157. 158. 
Bible in Shakespeare's Titne. 

92. 93, 94; in Merchant of 

Venice, 158. 159. 
Bibliography. 313. 
Blackfriar's theater, 41. 
Blades. English printer, 100. 
Blessed Sacrament, The Play 

of, 27. 
Brahe. Tycho. 249. 
Brandes, George. 144, 189. 
Brutus. 77, 87, and Cassius. 

194. 

C 

C/ESAR. 77, T 13 ; Shake- 
speare's, 189; of History 194; 
in War, 194; Peace, 195; 
personal characteristics, 196. 

Caesar and Brutus, 190. 

Caliban, 78, 112. 

Cassius. 1 73. 

Cawdor. Tliane of. 222. 

Characters — Index to, 318. 



351 



352 



GENERAL INDEX 



Character and Situation, Com- 
edy of, 129. 

Characters, dramatic purpose 
of, 76, 114, 115. 

Characters, Shakespeare's 
Women, 74. 

Characters and Plots, 74. 

Characteristics, National, in 
Hamlet, 252. 

Characterization, 73. 

Chettle, Henry, publisher, 60. 

Christ, redemption through, 
104. 

Christianity, 146. 

Church, 22, 24. 28, 30, 34, III. 

Classification of plays. Chrono- 
logically, 68 ; Dramatic, 124, 
132; Tabular, 134. 

Claudio and Hero, 90. 

Claudius, King, 75, 128, 255, 
256, 257, 265, 266. 267, 272. 

Climax of Drama, 128. 

Climax, Third Act of Drama, 
123. 

Close, Fifth Act of Drama, 123. 

Coat of arms, 63. 

Coleridge quoted, 59, 90. 

College of Heraldry, 63. 

Collins, Churton, English 
critic, 53, 54, 84. 

Comedy, first genuine, 36 ; har- 
mony restored, 103; its prin- 
ciple. 127; phases, 1:^8, 129, 
130; classes of, 131. 

Comedy of Errors, 130. 

Comedy and Nemesis, 152. 

Comic Action or Situation, 
129, 130. 

Comparative Study, Hamlet 
and Macbeth, 304. 

Condell, Henry, First Folio, 
16, 2^, 67. 

Conflict, double in Tragedy 
and Comedy, 127. 128. 

Conflict, religious, Merchant of 
Venice, 153. 

Conflict in Hamlet, 267, 276. 



Consequences, Fourth Act of 

Drama, 122, 123. 
Contemporaries, Shakespeare's 

senior, 44 ; Testimony of, 65. 
Contents, 5. 
Cordelia, 105. 
Coriolanus, 188. 
Cornelius, 257. 
Corpus Christi festival, 27. 
Coventry Mystery, 26. 
Crown Prince, 222. 
Crown, King's claim to, in 

Denmark, 265. 
Crudity of the early drama, 

38. 
Curtain, London theater, 40. 



D 



DATE of, Merchant of Venice, 
144 ; Julius Ccesar, 188 ; 
Macbeth, 210; Hamlet, 149. 

Death, Shakespeare's, 63 ; 
Cause, 64 ; violent, not tragic, 
104. 

Deer-stealing, 56. 

Deluge, The, 27. 

Denmark, 249, 252, 255, 256, 
257, 258, 267. 

Devil in Mystery and Morality 
Plays, 26, 28, 29. 

Diggs, Leonard, 66. 

Distinct purposes in Shake- 
speare, 72. 

Distinguishing points in Shake- 
speare, 71. 

Dowden, Edward, quoted, 45, 
57, 70, 80, 89, 91, 219; table 
of plays, 68, 69. 

Doyle, John T., on Spanish 
law, 157. 

Drama defined and discussed, 
21 ; Phases in Hamlet, 253. 

Drama, English, development, 
forms, 25; crudity, 38; effect 
of Reformation. 39. 

Drama, Prose, 84. 



GENERAL INDEX 



353 



Dramatic Action, Macbeth, 
210; Hamlet, 265. 

Dramatic Classification, 124; 
of plays, 134. 

Dramatic Collision, 106. 

Dramatic purpose of charac- 
ters, 76. 

Dramatic Structure, 117. 

Dramatist, Shakespeare as a, 
70. 

Drayton, Michael, 64. 

Dryden, John, 66. 

Dumas, Pere, quoted, 70. 

Duncan, crown passes to son 
of, 90; Murder of, 214, 222. 



ELIZABETH, Queen, 41, 55, 

92, 96, 213. 
Ethics defined, 22. 
Ethics of the Drama, 22; of 

the Shakespearean Drama, 

103. 
Ethical Conflict, 22. 
Ethical Element, 34. 
Ethical Force, greater than 

State, no. 
Ethical Principles, 103, 254. 
Ethical Standpoint of Julius 

Caesar, 129. 
Ethical World, discussed and 

defined, 23 ; Shakespeare's, 

106; plan of, 107; plan tab- 
ulated, 113. 
Ethical World, 220, 257, 272. ^ 
Euphumism in Shakespeare's 

prose, 85. 
Everyman, Synopsis of, 30. 
Exposition, First Act of Drama, 

122. 

F 
FAIRIES in Shakespeare. 51. 
Falstaff, dramatic purpose of, 

76; death, 74; principle, 89. 
Family, Shakespeare's, 51. 
Family Institution, 108, 259. 



Family and State, relations of, 

108. 
Family in Hamlet, Royal, Po- 

lonius, 259. 
Ferrex and Porrex, early 

tragedy, 38. 
Fiends in Shakespeare, 80. 
Fife, Thane of, 230. 
First Folio, 67 (also note). 
Fleance, 222, 230. 
Fool in Shakespeare, 81, 82. 
Foreign element in Hamlet, 

254- 
Forest of Arden, 77, 78. 
Fortinbras, 91, 254, 259, 272. 
Four P's, Synopsis of, 34. 
Furness, Variorum, 157. 



^'GENTLE WILL," 82. 

Gerard Johnson Monument, 99. 

Gervinus, German critic, 90. 

Ghost, motive power, 79; Sub- 
jective and Objective, 80; in 
Hamlet, 212, 252, 264, 267. 

Globe theater, 40. 

Gobbo, Launcelot, 23; Old 
Gobbo, S3. 

God and Christ, names in 
Shakespeare, 96. 

Goethe, quoted, 45. 

Gorboduc. early tragedy. 38- 

Grammar School of Stratford, 

53- 

Gratiano, 72, 150, I55, 156, 100. 

Gravcdigger's wit, 72. 

Greene, Robert, senior contem- 
porary of Shakespeare, 44. 
60. 

Greyhound, catches its prey 
while running, 100. 

Groundlings, origin of term. 
41. 

Growth, Second Act of Drama, 
122. 

Guildenstern, 261, 263, 266. 271. 

Guilds, 39- 



354 



GENERAL INDEX 



H 

HALL, Dr. John, 58. 

Hall, Susanna, 58, 63. 

Hall, Elizabeth, 59. 

Hamlet, his humor, 72 ; insan- 
ity, 76; prose speech, 83; re- 
ligious conscience, 92. 

Hamlet, Ghost, 77 ; influence 
of, 79; religious intensity, 
■92; a study in insanity, 92; 
Scripture, 93, 94; ideal 
tragedy, 131 ; strong drama, 
138. 

Hamlet and Macbeth, 222; 
Comparative Study, 304. 

Hamlet, A Study of, 249. 

SIDELIGHTS 

The Fame of Hamlet, liter- 
ature, 249; Evolution of 
the Play, 249; Shake- 
speare in the Play, 249; 
the Sphinx, 250; Our In- 
terest, 251, 

Points of Interest About 
the Play 

Length, 251 ; Source of Plot, 
252; Ghost, 252; Play 
Acting, 253; Phases of 
the Drama, 253; Insanity, 
253 ; Ethical Principles, 
254. 

THE FOREIGN ELEMENT 

Norway, represented by For- 
tinbras, 254; Fortinbras in 
rebellion, 255 ; Mediated, 
256; Fortinbras and the 
State, 257; the King, 257; 
Hamlet, 258. 

THE FAMILY INSTITUTION 

Royal family, Polonius' fam- 
ily? 259; the Contradictory 
Hamlet — Outward, Inner, 
261 ; Effect of Action^ 263. 



THE PLAY 

Basis, 264; Hamlet's, 264; 
King's, 265; Necessity of 
Ghost, 264; the Crime, 
265 ; the Revenge, 265 ; 
King's Claim to Crown, 
265 ; Hamlet's position, 
266; Justice of the de- 
mand, 266; Obstacles to 
overcome, 267; the Con- 
flict, Hamlet, 267; King, 
269. 

Nemesis ' 

Polonius, 269; OpheHa, 270; 
Queen, 270; King, 270; 
Laertes, 270 ; Hamlet, 271 ; 
Rosencrantz and Guilden- 
stern, 271 ; office of Ho- 
ratio, 273; Three Ques- 
tions — Hamlet's insanity, 
273 ; the Great Question, 
274; the Real Tragedy, 

275. 
Structure : Threads, 276 ; 
Subjective Conflicts, 276. 

CLASS STUDY 

Review, 277. 
The Play, 277. 

c h ar acteriz ation 
I The Ghost, 278. " 
II Horatio and the 
Ghost, 280. 
Hi Hamlet and the 

Ghost, 281. 
IV Hamlet and the King, 

282. 
V Hamlet and His 

Mother, 284. 
VI Hamlet and Ophelia, 
286. 
VII Hamlet and Polonius, 

289. 
VIII Hamlet and Rosen- 
crantz and Guilden- 
stern, 291. 



GENERAL INDEX 



355 



IX Hamlet and Horatio, 

293- 
X Hamlet's Character, 

295. 
XI The King, 296. 
General Questions, 298. 
Scheme for Outline Book, 

301. 
Comparative Study, Hamlet 
and Macbeth. 

I The Plays, 304. 
II The Men, 305. 

III The King and Mac- 
beth, 306. 

IV The Queen and Lady 
Macbeth, 307. 

Hamnet, Shakespeare's son, 58. 

Horatio, 271. 

Harmony restored in Den- 
mark, 272. 

Hathaway, Annie, 57. 

Hecate, queen of the witches, 
215. 

Heminge, John, First Folio, 67. 

Henry IV , Epilogue, Purity of 
style, 84. 

Henry V, reflects Shakespeare, 

74- 

Heywood, John, 34. 

Historical Drama, defined and 
discussed, 125. 

Historical Plays, order, classi- 
fication, 132. 

Holinshed, 115, 211. 

Holy Trinity Church, Strat- 
ford, 64. 

Horatio, 92, 128, 271. 

How to use the book in 
classes, 13.- 

Hudson, quoted, 24, 27, 59, yz^ 
74, 9I-. 

Humor in Shakespeare, 80. 

I 
lAGO, 89. 

Ian Maclaren, quoted, 88. 
Ideal Realm, 80. 



Ideal and Real Plays, 130. 

Imogen, 78. 

Index to the characters in 

Index to Shakespeare's Plays, 
319. 

Insanity in Plamlet, 253, 273. 

Institutions of Family and 
State, 90. 

Institutions of Shakespeare's 
Ethical World, 107, 108. 

Institutional persons, 190, 258. 

Interlude, origin and develop- 
ment, zz- 



JAMES, King, witchcraft, 213. 

Janus, Temple of, 191. 

Jessica, 150, 154, 155, 156. 

Jig, comic after play, 42. 

Jones, Inigo, 43. 

Jonson, Ben, 29, 45, 64, 65, 82. 

Judaism, 146. 

Julius Caesar, the Man and the 

Spirit, 126. 
Julius Ccosar, 138. 
Julius C-esar, A Study of the 

Play. 

sidelights 

Plot and Characters, 188. 
The Three Roman Plays, 
Theme, Date of Play, 
Source of Plot, 188. 

Shakespeare's Ciesar, iSt^; 
Caesar and Brutus, 190; 
Institutional Persons. 190; 
'ITagedy and Comedy in 
the Play, 191 ; Ethical 
Standpoint of the Play, 
192; World-Spirit, 192; 
the People in Julius Cccsar, 
193- 

the ClilSAR OF HISTORY 

In War, 194; Works of 
Peace, 195 ; Personal 
Characteristics, 196. 



356 



GENERAL INDEX 



STRUCTURE 

Threads, 196 ; Movements, 

197. 
Time Analysis, 197. 

CLASS STUDY 

Questions, General, 199; the 
Supernatural Element, 200 ; 
Cassius and the Conspira- 
cy, 200; Brutus, 201; An- 
tony, 203; the Word 
"Honor" in the Play, 204. 

Scheme for Outline Book, 

204. 

Topics for Essays and Dis- 
cussions, 206. 
Justice to Characters, 75. 
Justice in Hamlet, 266. 

K 

KATHERINE, Queen, 74. 
Kempe, fellow actor of 

Shakespeare, 65. 
Kenilworth Castle, 54, 55. 
King (Claudius) conflict, 269, 

272, 274, 27y. 
King John, Structure,/ 126. 
Knowledge, Universal, 98. 



LAERTES, 253, 259, 260, 270. 

Latin, letters in, 54. 

Launcelot, 83, 154. 

Law against deer-steahng, 56. 

Law of Conscience, iii. 

Law, Moral, 89. 

Law, Knowledge of, 98 ; gravi- 
tation, 99. 

Lear, colloquial prose, 85, 86; 
music, 97; disturbing ele- 
ment, 105 ; Nemesis, 106. 

Lee, Sidney, 48, 49 (note), 51, 
56, 64. 

Legal aspects in Merchant of 
Venice, 156. 

Legendary plays, 124, 125; re- 



lation to Historical, 126; 

tabular classification, 132. 
Leicester, Earl of, 54. 
Lenox, 218, 229. 
Lincoln, 192. 
Literature, Shakespeare's, 

Classic, 24. 
London, Shakespeare in, 62. 
Lorenzo, 96, 150, 154,- IS5- 
Love, life-giving principle, 108. 
Love, Theme in Merchant of 

Venice, 146. 
Love's Labour's Lost, 61, y^, 

81, 85, 138. 
Lucrece, 51. 
Lucy, Sir Thomas, 56. 



M 



MABIE, Hamilton Wright, 50. 
Macbeth, yj, 90, 222; Lady, 

222. 
Macbeth Ideal Tragedy, 131. 
Macbeth^ A Study of. 

SIDELIGHTS 

Some Features of the Play. 
Date, 210; Dramatic Action, 

210. 
Classification : Source of 
Plot, 211. 
Subjective and Objective, 

211. 
Supernatural element, 212; 

Superstitions of the Times, 

213. 
Weird Sisters, 213 ; Hecate, 

215 ; The Porter, 218. 
Theme, 218; Basis of the 

Drama, 220; of action, 220, 
Nemesis, 220. 

STRUCTURE 

Movements : Threads, 221 ; 
Love Strand, 222. 

CLASS STUDY 

Review : The Play, 22^. 



GENERAL INDEX 



357 



SUPERNATURAL ELEMENTS 

(a) Weird Sisters, 224. 

(b) The Dagger, 224. 

(c) Ghost, 225. 

(d) Nature, omens, etc., 
225 ; Retribution, 226. 

General Questions, 22"]. 

CHARACTERIZATION 

I. Macbeth, 227. 
II. Lady Macbeth, 233. 
III. Banquo, 236. 
General Questions, 238. 
Scheme for Outline Book, 

238. 
Topics for essays and discus- 
sion, 240. 
Macduff, 217, 218, 230. 
Malcolm, 221. 
Malone, Edmund, 47. 
Malvalio, 75. 
Maria, 75. 

Marlowe, Christopher, 45, 107. 
Measure for Measure, 94, 95. 
Mediation, 127, 130, 155. 
Medical knowledge, Shake- 

peare's, 98. 
Merchant of Venice, 138, 139, 
140. 
A Study of : 

SIDELIGHTS 

Date of Play and Source of 
Plot, 144; Theme, 146; 
Shylock's wealth, 146 ; 
Portia's wealth, 146; Re- 
ligious conflict, 146; Love 
theme, 146; Theme traced, 

147. 
Structure: Threads, 150; 
Movements. 151 ; Comedy 
and Nemesis, 152; Analy- 
sis of Structure, 153; Re- 
ligious conflict, 153; Love 
thread, 154; Mediation. 
155; Property thread, 156; 
Solution, 156; Some Legal 



Aspects, 156; Bible in The 
Merchant of Venice, 158. 
Development of the Play 
Questions for daily lessons, 

162. 
General Questions, 176. 
Schemes for Outline Book, 

(A) 179, (B) 180. 
Topics for Essays and Dis- 
cussions, 181. 

Meres, Francis, 65. 

Merrygreek, Matthew, 2>^. 

Merry Wives, prose, 84. 

Midsummer Night's Dream, 55, 
78, 99, 130. 

Moral, subjective, law of con- 
science, III. 

Moral System in Shakespeare, 
Hudson, 91. 

Morality Play, 28, 29, 30. 

Morocco, Prince of, 154. 

Moth, 75. 

Moulton quoted, 79. 

Movements in dramatic struc- 
ture, 120, 121, 122, 126, 129, 
130, 131 ; Merchant of Venice, 
151, 155. 156; Julius Ccesar, 
197; Macbeth, 221; Hamlet, 
276. 

Music, 96, 99. 

Mystery Play, 25, 26, 27. 



N 



NAME of Shakespeare, 51. 

Nash, Thomas, husband of 
Elizabeth Hall, 59. 

Nations, right to exist, etc., 
109. 

Nature, influence of, 55 ; in 
comedy, 78. 

Negative phase of Ethical 
World, 112. 

Nemesis defined, 24; follows 
evil-doer, 104, 127, 130; Na- 
tions, 109. no; Macbeth, 90: 
Lear, 106; in Merchant of 



358 



GENERAL INDEX 



Venice, 152; Julius Ccssar, 
194 ; Macbeth, 2ig, 220 ; Ham- 
let, 269. 

Nerissa, 150, 154, 155, 156. 

Newcastle, Duchess of, 65. 

New Place, Stratford, 62, 63, 
144. 

Norway, 254, 255, 257, 258. 



OBSTACLES in Hamlet, 267. 

"Old Knowell," 65. 

Ophelia, 71, 99, 254, 260, 261, 

270. 
Oracles, etc., 80. 
Osric (Hamlet), euphumism, 

85. 
Othello, 89, 90. 
Outline Book, 143 ; Themes for, 

1791, 180, 204, 238, 301. 



P's, The Four, 34. 

Palladis Tamia, 65. 

Parliament laws, 36, 39. 

Peace, Work of Caesar, 195. 

Peele, George, 44. 

People, the power of, 192 ; in 
Julius CcEsar, 193. 

Pericles, disputed, 133. 

Philippi, 194. 

Phillipps, J. q. Halliwell- 47- 

Plants, mentioned in Shake- 
speare, 99. 

Plaj^s, performance of, 42 ; re- 
cast, 61. Date of Shake- 
speare's, 67 ; table of, 68, 69 ; 
length of, 210. 

Play-acting in Hamlet, 253. 

Plot : Incidents of plot and of 
story, 113, 114; Sources of, 
115, 117; Merchant of Venice, 
144; Macbeth, 211; Julius 
Ccesar, 188; Hamlet, 252. 

Plot of Hamlet, graphic illus- 
tration, facing, 123. 



Polonius, 252, 261, 269 (Neme- 
sis), 273. 

Portent, 80. 

Porter in Macbeth, 218. 

Portia, Brutus', 52, 174; in 
Merchant of Venice, 147, 148, 
149, 150. 

Potato, 99. 

Preface, 13. 

Principles and Structure of the 
Shakespearean Drama, 183. 

Principles, ethical, in the 
Shakespearean Drama, 183 ; 
in Julius Ccesar, 192 ; in Ham- 
let, 254. 

Property, ethical institution, 
109. 

Property conflict in Merchant 
of Venice, 145. 

Prose, Shakespeare's, 82. 

Puritanism, 40, 46. 

Q 

QUEEN Katherine, 74. 

Queen in Hamlet ISIemesis, 
270, 272. 

Question, The great, in Ham- 
let, 274. 

Questions on plays, 162, 199, 
223, 277. 

Quickly-Pistol, Mistress, 76. 

Quiney, Thomas, 58. 

Quiney, Judith, 47. 

Quiney, Richard, letter in 
Latin, 54. 



Raleigh, Sir Walter, 99. 
Ralph, Roister Doister, first 

Comedy, 36. 
Real and Ideal in Tragedy and 

Comedy, 130. 
Records, Shakespearean, 45. 
Reformation, 30, 34, 39. 
Religion in Shakespeare, 91. 
Religious Conflict in Merchant 

of Venice, 146. 



GENERAL INDEX 



359 



Repentance, Horatio, King 

Claudius, 128. 
Retribution (Nemesis) follows 

Lear, etc., 106. 
Revenge, The, in Hamlet, 265. 
Reynaldo, 260. 
Richard III, spirits, ghosts, 78, 

79- 
Richard II, Bible in, 94. 
Romeo and Juliet, 62, 130. 
Rosalind, 74. 
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern, 

261, 263, 266, 271. 
Rowe, Nicholas, 47, 65. 



Sackerson, bear, 41. 

Sackville, Thomas, 38, 156. 

Sacrifice, the principle of, 104. 

Saintsbury, points and purposes 
of Shakespeare, 71, 72. 

Scenery, lack of, 43. 

Scenes in Acts, 123. 

Schemes for Outline Books, 
179, 180, 204, 238, 301. 

Schlegel, 275. 

Science, gravitation, 99. 

Scotland, crown elective, 221. 

Senior contemporaries, Shake- 
speare's, 44. 

Sidelights in Merchant of 
Venice, 144; Julius Ccesar, 
188; Macbeth, 210; Jiamlct, 
249. 

Sidney, Sir Philip, quoted, 38. 

Shakespeare's senior contempo- 
raries, 44. 

Shakespeare, name, common, 
spelling, 51. 

Shakespeare, John, 52 ; Gilbert, 
Richard, Edmund, Joan, 
Anne, 53. 

Shakespeare, The Study of. 
Suggestions, 137. . 

Shakespeare in Hamlet, 249. 

Shakespeare and His Dra- 



mas: Taine, Dovwlen, Ben 
Jonson quoted, 45. 
Shakespeare, William, scarcity 
of records, 45 ; early biogra- 
phers unreliable, 46; authen- 
tic biographers, 46, 47 ; biog- 
raphers of our own time, 47; 
Facts gleaned from records, 
48; Birthplace, 50; birth and 
baptism, 50, 51 ; Name, 51 ; 
Family, 52; Boyhood and 
education, Mr, Churton Col- 
lins c[uoted, 53, 54; Dramatic 
atmosphere of Stratford, 54; 
Influence of Nature, 55 ; na- 
ture and human nature his 
teachers, 55 ; The Poaching 
Legend, 55; Marriage, 57; 
Children, 58 ; Family extinct, 

59. In London: Coleridge 
quoted, 59 ; Greene's jealousy, 

60. As an Actor : Ghost, 
Adam, 60; recasting plays, 
61 ; Play-writing, 61, 62 ; Re- 
turn to Stratford, bought 
New Place, 62 ; cause of 
financial success, 63 ; Will, 
death and burial, 63 ; New 
Place sold, 63 ; Statue placed 
in Westminster, 64 ; Cause of 
death, 64 ; Testimony of con- 
temporaries, 65; Gerard 
Johnson Monument, 66 ; 
Translations, 66; Shake- 
speareana, 66, 67. Disorder 
of his writings: First Folio, 
67, Date of Plays, 67 : Dow- 
den's Classification, 68, 69. 

Shakespeare as a Dramatist, 
70; Dowden, Dumas Pere, 
Snider quoted, 70; Fidelity 
to human nature, 71 ; Saints- 
bury quoted, 71, y2. 

Shakespeare universal, jt, : re- 
flects himself in Henry I', 74. 
Characterization, 73. 

Shakespeare's Women, 74; 



360 



GENERAL INDEX 



Character and Plots, 74; Jus- 
tice to characters, 75, 76; 
dramatic purpose of, 36; The 
Supernatural, 'JT, As a mo- 
tive power, 79; Moulton's 
three propositions, 79; Forms 
of, 80; Humor, 80; sympa- 
thy with the Fool, 81. 
Shakespeare's Prose, 83; Prose 
Drama, Shakespeare's cre- 
ation, 84; Five styles (Col- 
lins), 85. 
Shakespeare as a Teacher : 
Morals : Immoral characters, 
88 ; Dowden, Gervinus, 
Coleridge quoted, 90. _ 
Institutions of Family and 
State, Shakespeare loyal to, 
Hudson quoted, 91. 
Religion, 91 ; The Bible in 
Shakespeare, 92; in Eng- 
land, 93 ; Shakespeare's 
knowledge of, 94. 
Music, Shakespeare's appre- 
ciation of, 96. 
Universal Knowledge : Law, 
98; Medical, 98; Science, 
99; Nature, 99; Animal 
life, 100; Topography, 100; 
Vocabulary, 100. 
Shakespeareana, 67. 
Shakesperiana for January, 

1893, 157. . 
Shakespeare Library, a small, 

313- 
Shottery, Anne Hathaway s 

home, 57. 
Shylock, the Jew, human, 

prose, 83. 
Snider, Denton J., quoted, 25, 

30, 70- 
Snitterfield, 52. 
Sphinx, The, in Hamlet, 250. 
Sprites in Shakespeare, 80. 
Stage, Shakespeare's retirement 

from, 62. 



State and Family interdepend- 
ent, 108. 

Statue of Shakespeare, 64. 

Stratford-on-Avon, 50, 53, 54, 
62, 63. 

Stories in plot of Merchant of 
Venice, 144. 

Structure, Dramatic, 117; Me- 
chanical, 122; of Historical 
dramas, 126; Comedy, 129. 

Structure, Merchant of Venice, 
150; analysis of, 153; Julius 
Ccesar, 196; Macbeth, 221; 
Hamlet, 276. 

Study of an individual play, 
139 ; of special plays, 142. 

Sturley, Abraham, letters in 
Latin, 54. 

Subjective and Objective, 211. 

Supernatural, The, beliefs in, 
yy; as a motive power, 79; 
Forms of, 80 ; in Hamlet and 
Macbeth, 212. 



TABULAR, dramatic classifi- 
cation of Shakespeare's plays, 

134- 

Taine quoted, 45. 

Tatler III quoted, 96. 

Teacher, Shakespeare as a, 87. 

Tempest, The, 62 ; Supernat- 
ural world dramatized, 78. 

Theater in Shakespeare's Time, 
39; Theaters built, 40. 

Theobald, edited Shakespeare, 
1733, 60. 

Theme : Merchant of Venice, 
145 ; traced, 147 ; Julius 
Ccesar, 188; Macbeth, 218. 

Thom, William Taylor, quoted, 
138. 

Thorvaldsen, 249. 

Threads: Discussed, 117; 
traced, Hamlet, 118; Romeo 



GENERAL INDEX 



361 



and Juliet, ii8; Defined, 121 ; 
in Historical Drama, 126; 
' Comedy, 129, 130. 

Threads in Merchant of Venice, 
150; traced, 153; tabulated, 
141; Julius Ccesar, ig6; Alac- 
betli, 221 ; Hamlet, 276. 

Time Analysis, Julius Ccesar, 
197; table, 198. 

Titns Adronicus, classification, 
132, 133- 

Topics for essays and discus- 
sion. Merchant of Venice, 
181 ; Julius Ccesar, 206 ; Mac- 
beth, 240 ; Hamlet, 302. 

Tragedy, first Gorboduc, 38. 

Tragedy and Comedy, 127; 
Ideal and Real, 130; in Julius 
Ccesar, 191. 

Tragedy, The Real, in Hamlet, 
275- 

Translations of Shakespeare, 
66, no, 

Transubstantiation, 28. 

Treatment of immoral charac- 
ters, 88. 

Trinity Church, Stratford, S3- 

Troilus and Cressida, law of 
gravitation, 99. 

Twelfth Nig Jit, prose in, 84. 

Typography, Shakespeare's 
knowledge of, 100. 



U 



UDALL, Nicholas, first Com- 
edy, 36. 

Ulrici, quoted, 75. 

Universality of Shakespeare's 
plays, 73. 

Universal knowledge, 98. 



V 
VENUS and Adonis, 51. 
Vice in the Morality Play, 28. 
Vice, not condoned, 88. 
Vocabulary, Shakespeare's, 100. 
Versatility, Shakespeare's, 137. 
Variorum, Furness, 157. 
Voltimand and Cornelius, 157. 

W 

WAR of the Theaters, 65. 
Warwick in 2 Henry vi, iii ; 2 

Humphrey's body, 98. 
Warwickshire, 50, 51. 
Wealth, Shylock's, Antonio's, 

145 ; Portia's, 146. 
Weird Sisters, essential in 

Macbeth, yy ; influence, 79, 

212, 213; mission, 220; 

home, 230. 
Wendell, Barrett, quoted, 251. 
Westminster Abbey, Poet's 

Corner, 64. 
Whitney, Eli, 211. 
Will, Shakespeare's, 64; Quo- 
tation from, 92. 
Wilmcote, home of Mary 

Arden, 52. 
Winter, William, 50, 64. 
JP'inter's Tale, euphuistic prose, 

85 ; as Comedy, 130. 
Witchcraft, King James, 213. 
Witches in Shakespeare, 80; 

in Macbeth, 213. 
Women players, 42. 
Women, Shakespeare's, 74. 
World Spirit, 109; defined, 

no; triumph of the best, 

III. 
World Spirit and the People, 

192. 
Writings of Shakespeare, First 

Folio, 67. 



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